
Class 
Book. 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES 



OF 



AGRICULTURE 



BY 

EMMET S. GOFF 

Late Professor of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin 
AND 

D. D. MAYNE 

Principal School of Agriculture, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 



INTRODUCTION 

BY 

EX-GO\'ERNOR \V. D. HOARD 



NEW YORK • . • CINCINNATI ■ . • CHICAGO 

AMEEICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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LIBRARV ^' SONSRESS 
Twn Cnnim Raneivsd 

JUL 29 1904 

i Oooyrt»ht Cntrv 
CLASS ^ XXo. Na 
COPY B / 



Copyright, 1904, by 

D. D. MAYNE 

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 

G. and M. Agriculture. 
W. P. I 



PREFACE. 

The great importance of the practical element in educa- 
tion has gained almost universal recognition during the 
past few years, and to-day educators are practically unan- 
imous in emphasizing its necessity. Both from utilitarian 
motives and in recognition of the value of applied knowl- 
edge as a disciplinary study, they are urging the intro- 
duction of studies which pertain to the life and environ- 
ment of the child. The mental exercise or discipline 
derived from such studies is much greater than is usually 
accredited to them, as the material of study is ever present, 
constantly stimulating the mind to activity. 

The latest demand is for the introduction of the Prin- 
ciples of Agriculture in the rural schools. There are 
special reasons for the introduction of this study. The 
education of the country boy and girl has been " away 
from the farm and toward the factory" and the city. 
The study of civics, of geography, of history and of bi- 
ography has created ideals of greatness that find their 
expression only in city life. Even the so-called " Nature 
Study " has been largely sentimental and urban in its 
leanings. The result has been a continual and constantly 
increasing exodus of the most thoughtful and enterpris- 
ing young men and young women of our rural districts 
to the city. The introduction of the study of the Prin- 
ciples of Agriculture in the rural schools proposes to 
make the farm the center of interest and to make all its 

3 



4 PREFACE 

industries, its economies, and its science the subjects of 
thought and study. Many of our best sociologists look 
to the introduction of the study of agriculture under 
favorable circumstances as the most helpful agency in 
securing intelligent management of our farms. 

Many books have been prepared whose object is to 
furnish a text-book in elementary agriculture for the use 
of pupils in the rural schools. That these books have 
lacked adaptability for the purpose intended is evident 
from the insistent demands for a text-book, which, while 
it shall not be too difficult for the boys and girls in the 
rural school of to-day, shall yet cover pretty thoroughly 
the numerous departments of our complex agriculture. 

The constant ideal in the minds of the authors was 
the production of a book on this subject that shall be 
simple enough to be placed as a text in the hands of the 
pupils in the upper form of the rural school. Many 
things have been omitted that to others may seem es- 
sential in a book of this kind. The limitations in the 
size of the volume, as well as of the time of the pupil, has 
led to the omission of many subjects that would be very 
interesting and profitable, but concerning which special 
treatises should be consulted. 

The French Minister of Education, in giving instruc- 
tions " to assist the masters of rural elementary schools 
in teaching the first rudiments of agriculture," says: 
" Instruction in the elementary principles of agriculture, 
such as can be properly included in the programme of 
primary schools, ought to be addressed less to the mem- 
ory than to the intelligence of the children. It should 
be based on observation of the every-day facts of rural 



PREFACE 5 

life, and on a system of simple experiments appropriate 
to the resources of the school, and calculated to bring out 
clearly the fundamental scientific principles underlying 
the most important agricultural operations. Above all, 
the pupils of the primary school should be taught the 
reasons for these operations, and the explanations of the 
phenomena which accompany them." 

The first part of the book is based upon experiments 
which may be performed in the school room or at home. 
A summary, entitled " What We Have Learned," has 
been placed at the close of each chapter. These sum- 
maries furnish definite statements for the pupil to learn, 
and may be used by the teacher as a basis for drill work. 

This plan has not been pursued in the latter part of 
the book, because the subjects considered do not lend 
themselves easily to the experimental method of treat- 
ment. Numerous illustrations have been given, how- 
ever, and it is hoped that the teacher will combine ob- 
servation exercises on the farm with the work in the 
school. 

The preparation of this book was begun by E. S, 
Goff, late Professor of Horticulture in the University of 
Wisconsin. Professor Goff had many years of experi- 
ence in teaching the principles of agriculture to young 
men, and, as a careful investigator and student of agri- 
cultural subjects, he achieved a national reputation. It 
is greatly to be regretted that his death in the summer 
of 1902 prevented him from completing a work that had 
so much of promise in it. Although I was in frequent 
consultation with him during the preparation of the man- 
uscript, and although I have striven to complete the work 



6 PREFACE 

in accord with his plans and outlines, I alone am respon- 
sible for its shortcomings and whatever virtues may 
inhere in it are attributable entirely to him. 

It gives me pleasure to acknowledge the work per- 
formed by Miss Devlin, of the Whitewater Normal 
School, in testing the experiments in her classes and in 
giving valuable suggestions in the preparation of the 
manuscript. 

I am under great obligations to several members of the 
Faculties of the Agricultural Schools connected with the 
University of Wisconsin and the University of Minne- 
sota for valuable criticism and suggestions. 

D. D. M. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 9 

1. Dead and Living Matter 13 

2. The Soil and Soil Water 17 

3. Plants and Water 21 

4. How Plants Feed 24 

5. How Plants Grow 29 

6. The Ideal Soil 33 

7. How TO Keep the Soil Fertile }^'] 

8. Humus in the Soil 42 

9. How Clover Helps the Farmer 45 

10. The Rotation of Crops 49 

11. Saving Soil Moisture 54 

12. The Parasites of Plants 57 

13. Seeds and Soil Water 62 

14. Seeds Can not Germinate Without Air . . 64 

15. Packing the Soil About Planted Seeds . . 67 

16. Seed Testing 71 

17. How Seeds " Come up " 75 

18. It is Wise to Plant the Largest Seeds . . 79 

19. Rearing Plants from Buds 82 

20. Transplanting 88 

21. How to Improve Plants 92 

22. The Flower and Its Parts 96 

23. Imperfect and Perfect Flowers loi 

24. Crops and Weeds 105 

7 



8 CONTENTS 



PAGE 



25. More About Weeds 109 

26. The Garden 130 

2^. The Orchard 137 

28. Animals that Destroy Insects 143 

29. Animal Husbandry 152 

30. Principal Dairy Breeds 154 

31. Beef Breeds 157 

32. Dairying 159 

33. Principles of Feeding 169 

34. Horses 177 

35. Sheep 183 

36. Swine 189 

T^J. Poultry 193 

38. Ducks and Turkeys 198 

39. Bee-keeping 201 

40. Improvement of Home and School Yards . . 207 

Appendix 215 

Index 243 



Plate I. 




MAXIM us 





CHERRY 



VVIiriK CJRAl'K 



MORGAN'S FAVORlTli 




COLUMBUS 





HOL'GHION 




CHAU'lAUC^UA 




SMITHS IMl'R()\i;i) 



DOWNING 



SlRAWBIiRRlES 



GOOSEBERRIES 



CURRANTS 



Plate II. 



i-: 






SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORN (above) 

LIGHT BRAHMAS (below) 



HOUDANS (center) 



Plate III. 




PAR IRUXiE COCHINS (above) BARRED I'LYMOUT}! ROCKS (center) 

SILVER LACED W Y AN DO ITES (below) 



Plate IV. 




INDIAN (;AMKS (.ihove) 



BRON7.F. Tl'RKK'S'S Oiclcnv) 



ROUKN nUCKS (center) 



Plate V. 




GUERNSEY COW ^abovc) 



JKRSKV COW (below) 



Plate VI. 





M 


p 


^^^ 1 


^ 


^^^^^^^^^iki^^A * wf 


XJ»>« 


^y.TI >/y , 



AYRSHIRE COW (above) 



IIOLSTEIN-KRIKSIAN tdVV (below) 



Plate VII. 




SHORTHORN COW (above) 



RKD POI.LHn C-OVV (below) 



Plate VIII. 





HEREFORD COW (above) 



GALLOWAY COW (below) 



INTRODUCTION. 

A few years ago, I was present at the nieeting of the 
State Board of Agriculture in New Haven, where a col- 
lege professor gave an address on Botany, The address 
was scholarly, scientific, and thoroughly interesting, but 
it gave no particular aid or help to a better understanding 
of the problems of vegetable life that confront the farmer. 
When the speaker was through, I asked him why it was 
that all the botanical wisdom of the world had not con- 
structed a simple, clear, easily understood text-book for 
schools and farmers on Farm Botany. I stated the great 
need of such a book, and gave the following illustration : 
There are two important laws that govern the growth 
of the red clover plant, which, if understood by the prac- 
tical farmer, would prove of incalculable value to him. 
The first is that the plant, being a biennial, proceeds to 
die when once it has produced seed. The bearing of that 
law on the farmer is this : He allows his clover to advance 
so far in growth before he cuts it that the seed is formed. 
Cut it before seed forming, and Nature, thwarted in her 
purpose, will rally all her forces and throw a vigorous 
second crop; cut this before the seed forms, and she 
renews her efforts with the same persistency for a third 
crop. In this way, the farmer, // h^ knows the lazv, can 
take advantage of it to his greater profit. Allow the 
seed to form, and the plant is then through with its 
maternal purpose, which is the object of its life, and but 

9 



10 INTRODUCTION 

a very light second crop can be grown. This law applies 
to alfalfa as well. Delay the cutting of the first crop 
too long and the second crop will be very light. 

Take the second law : For years the farmers of the 
United States have snfifered untold loss through the dying 
of their newly seeded clover. When sown with a grain 
nurse crop, the clover would germinate and make a fine 
stand if sown with oats, for instance, but, when the oats 
were harvested, the young clover plants would be burned 
to death. I noticed, however, that, where a farmer had 
a field of oats, that was seeded with clover, near his 
barn, if he cut into it, when the oats were green, to feed 
his horses or to soil his cows, the young clover plants in 
that part of the field always lived and survived the sum- 
mer heat. I observed, also, that, where a farmer cut a 
swath around the outer edge of his oat field about two 
weeks before the oats were ripe that he might have a clear 
space on which to turn his reaper and team, there, also, 
the clover survived. I reasoned from these observations 
that there was something in the growth of the oats and 
clover together that acted disastrously to the young 
clover plants. It took me a long time to find the botan- 
ical fact, so stated that an ordinary man could under- 
stand it that oats require five hundred pounds of water to 
ripen one pound of the grain. I then saw that, with this 
tremendous drainage of moisture from the soil in conse- 
quence of the ripening of the grain, together with the 
evaporation by sun and wind, the young clover plants 
could not live; but that, when the oats were cut before 
the grain formed, the clover could live. 

I asked the professor : " Is there anything to hinder 



INTRODUCTION II 

these two important biological facts bearing on the clover 
plant being- put in a text-book and taught to the farmer's 
boy?" 

The professor did not answer these questions very 
satisfactorily. 

I have been pushing along this road for years, striving 
to have the elements of agriculture taught in the common 
schools of my own state, Wisconsin. I have seen some- 
thing done. No teacher is now allowed to graduate from 
our Normal Schools until he or she has taken a course in 
Elementary Agriculture. Furthermore, we have estab- 
lished several County Training Schools, whose particular 
function is to educate the teachers of the country schools 
for the teaching of Elementary Agriculture. We have 
also begun the erection of County Agricultural Schools 
which take the country farm boy and give him instruction 
something like that now given in the Short Course of our 
Agricultural College. France, Germany, and, indeed, 
nearly all Europe, are doing this work of teaching Ele- 
mentary Agriculture in the primary schools. These na- 
tions are fifty years ahead of the United States in their 
comprehension of how it is to be done and in the doing 
of it. 

As a people, we have gone mad in our pursuit of so- 
called " higher education." Rightly understood, there is 
no such education. A better term would be " wider edu- 
cation." Our teachers, even in the country district 
schools, unwittingly educate the farm boy and girl away 
from the farm. If they seek to inspire in them ambition 
in the pursuit of knowledge, it is for the purpose, as they 
say, of encouraging them to " rise in the world." What 



12 INTRODUCTION 

American agriculture needs more than anything else is 
that it become intellectualized, that it be made the pur- 
pose and object of mental, as well as physical, effort. 
Its greatest reward as to wealth, honor and contentment 
lies in that direction. It must be made the object of 
brain work as well as manual work. To bring about 
this attitude, we must take hold of the children of our 
farmers in their home schools, and there show them that 
the problems of the farm are great enough to enlist all 
the brain power they can summon. Once there is estab- 
lished in the mind of the farm boy an intellectual in- 
sight into the problems of the farm, the future of better 
farmers, better farms, and a wider, stronger conserva- 
tion of the resources of the state, will be established. 
It seems to me self-evident that, if we are to reach this 
great body of men, in whose hands lie the destinies of 
all future agriculture and, to a great extent, the weal 
of the whole country, it must be through the schools 
in which and in which alone they receive their education. 

W. D. Hoard. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE 




1. DEAD AND LIVING MATTER. 

Illustrative material: A few grains of sand on a piece of 
paper. Examine the grains carefully. 

Dead Matter. — Figure i shows a grain of sand as it 
appears under the microscope. Its corners have been 

rounded by rubbing against other 
grains of sand. It can not move; 
it can not change its form. We 
might leave it under the microscope 
and look at it daily for a year, and it 
^ . , , would look just the same every time. 

Fig. I. — Gram of sand, -" ■^ 

magnified. \^ ucvcr grows larger and never di- 

vides into other grains of sand unless it is broken by 
some outside force. It has no life ; it is dead. 

Living Matter. — Figure 2 
shows some yeast plants as 
they appear under the micro- 
scope. The yeast plant is so 
small that it can be seen only 
with a microscope. Each yeast 
plant consists of a closed sack 
or cell, containing a jellylike 
liquid called protoplasm. If 

we watch the yeast plant under the microscope, we find 

Sometimes little swellings grow 
13 




Fig. 2. — Yeast plants, magnified. 



that it changes in form 




14 DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 

out, like knobs on a potato, and these will by and by- 
separate themselves from the parent and become other 
yeast plants. The yeast plant is alive; so is every grow- 
ing plant. 

The Ameba. — Figure 3 shows several specimens of 
the ameba, an animal found in stagnant water. It is so 

small that it can be seen only 
with a microscope. The ameba 
consists of protoplasm ; it can 
move itself about; it can 
Fig. 3.— Amebas, magnified. change its form ] it can divide 

and so make other amebas. The ameba, like the yeast 
plant, is alive. Plants and animals have life. Sand 
and all other mineral matters are dead. Plants and ani- 
mals may lose their life, and then their bodies, like 
mineral matter, are dead. 

Plants and Animals Grow. — If we put a drop of fresh 
yeast into a bottle containing well water with some sugar 
and a little white of egg stirred into it, and set the bottle 
in a warm place, in a few hours the liquid will become 
whitish in color. This is because millions of new yeast 
plants have formed from the few we put in. The young 
yeast plants and amebas are at first small, but they grow 
until they are as large as their parents. Plants and 
animals increase in number, and grow in size. Dead 
things can not, of themselves, grow or increase in 
number. 

Cells. — Figure 4 shows a small part of an apple leaf, 
as it appears under the microscope. Notice that it is 
made up of many small sacks grown together. Each of 
these little sacks is a cell, something like a yeast plant. 



DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 



15 




A plant large enough to be handled is made up of a mul- 
titude of cells grown together, each of which is, or has 
been, alive. An animal large 
enough to be seen without a 
microscope is also made up 
of many living cells, each of 
which is like the ameba in 
many respects. 

Needs of Plants and Ani- 
mals — Plants and animals 
need certain things to keep 
them in health. Protoplasm, 
which is the living part of 
cells, must have both food 

and water, or it can not live fig. 4.— showing ceiis for the ap- 
ple leaf in a section from its upper 
long. In all the higher to its lower surface. Highly 

<-' "-" magnified. Ihe spaces marked 

plants and animals, it must ^ ^""^ <=^^'''" between the ceiis. 
have air, or it will smother; it must receive a certain 
amount of warmth, or it will either freeze to death or 
cease to grow ; and the protoplasm in certain cells of the 
higher plants must have light, or the plants will soon die. 
To keep plants and animals healthy, we must provide 
them, as far as possible, with any of these things that 
they lack. 

Produce. — The farmer rears plants and animals. He 
rears plants on his land, and his animals feed on the 
plants. Plants and animals reared on the farm are 
called produce. The farmer sells a part of his produce 
to those that need it, and thus secures the means to buy 
clothing and tools, to erect his buildings, to improve 
his home, and to educate his children. His soil is formed 



1 6 DEAD AND LIVING MATTER 

of mineral matters and the dead remains of plants and 
animals. The farmer needs to learn all he can about 
the soil, and how plants and animals grow. He should 
also strive to learn what crops are likely to repay his 
labor best, and how to dispose of these to the best ad- 
vantage of himself and his farm. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Plants and animals are living beings. They are made 
up of cells. 

The simplest plants and animals are made up of single 
cells. 

All living cells contain protoplasm. 

The soil is largely dead mineral matter. 

The farmer should learn all he can about the plants 
and animals he rears, about his soil, and about his crops 
and markets. 



2. THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER. 



Illustrative material: An oil lamp, a narrow-neck bottle, two 
other bottles, and some candle wicking. 

Prepare the soil lamp, Figure 5, by filling a small, narrow- 
neck bottle about one-third full of kerosene oil, and then filling 
the bottle to the top with small fragments of dry earth. If the 
oil does not saturate the earth to the top, add a little more oil. 

Prepare the experiment shown in Figure 6, using a small lamp 
wick or candle wicking. Add water to the left hand bottle, and 
wet the wick before putting it in place. 

Oil and the Lamp Wick. — In a lighted oil lamp, the 
oil passes upward through the wick as fast as it burns. 
The oil passes through the wick because the wick contains 
a number of small spaces or pores 
that connect with one another. It 
would rise through almost any very porous 
substance as a sponge, a piece of blotting 
paper, a piece of brick, or of porous 
earth. 

Dry Earth as a Wick. — Figure 5 shows 
a lamp made of a bottle filled with dry 
earth, which answers for the wick. The 
oil rises through the earth because 
the earth is porous. It creeps from 
one particle of the earth to another at the 
points where the particles touch one an- 
other. The larger the particles are, after 
they pass a certain size, the slower will the oil rise, because 
the points where the particles touch are fewer. 

17 




Fig. S- — Karth 
lamp. 



i8 



THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 




Capillary Attraction. — Water also will rise through a 
lamp wick or other porous substance. In the experi- 
ment shown in Fig- 
ure 6, the water 
passes through the 
wick from the left 
bottle into the right 
one. If the bottle 
contained porous 
soil, as in Figure 5. 
the water would rise 
through the soil to 
the top of the bottle, 
where it would slow- 

FiG. 6.— Illustrating capillarity. ly pasS off iutO the 

air. The force which causes oil, water or any other 
liquid to rise through a porous substance, is called 
capillary attraction or capillarity. 

Evaporation. — If we rub the blackboard with a damp 
cloth, the board does not remain wet long, because the 
water passes off into the air. We hang wet clothes upon 
a line so the water in them will pass off into the air and 
they will become dry. The passing off of water from a 
wet surface into the air, we call evaporation. 

Evaporation Rapid.' — Water is evaporating from the 
soil out of doors nearly all the time when it is not raining ; 
and, as in the lamp wick the oil rises from the font as it 
burns at the top of the wick, so the water rises from the 
deeper soil as it evaporates at the surface. In countries 
that have frequent rains, the water rises from below 
in dry weather nearly or quite as fast as it evapo- 



THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 



19 



rates, hence the soil is kept moist except at the very 
surface. 

Water Not at Rest. — During rain, or whenever the 

surface soil is wetter than the soil below, the water passes 
clown into the soil until it reaches a layer that it can not 




"~=r" Ground Water 



round Water ^ "~-^^^ 



Fig. 7. — Showing the circvilation of water. 

pass, or until the upward current again begins ; the water 
in the soil is seldom at rest. In many places, there is a 
surplus of water deep, down in the soil, which flows into 
wells or flows out in certain places as springs. 



20 THE SOIL AND SOIL WATER 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The rising of oil through the wick of a lighted lamp 
is due to a force called capillary attraction. The same 
force causes water to rise through the soil to the surface 
in dry weather. 

The passing off of water from a wet surface into the 
air is called evaporation. 

In dry weather, w'ater evaporates from the surface of 
the soil, and other w^ater from below rises to take its 
place. In wet weather, the water in the soil tends to 
move downward. 



3. PLANTS AND WATER. 



Illustrative material: A dried leafy shoot from some growing 
plant and three bean seedlings that have attained their rough 
leaves; two small bottles, one filled with water; a fruit jar. 

Evaporation from Plants. — If we cut off a leafy branch 
from a growing plant and put it in a warm oven, the 
leaves and stem will soon become much smaller and 
lig^hter and more brittle. This is because the water w'hich 
the branch contained has been evaporated by the heat. 
Often more than four fifths of the weight of a growing 
plant is water. Hay is dried grass. The farmer cuts 
his grass and lets it lie 
exposed to the heat of 
the sun until most of 
the water it contained 
has evaporated. 

Water Necessary. — 
If we cut off two bean 
seedlings at the surface 
of the ground and put 
the stem of one into 
a bottle of water and 
that of the other into an 

empty bottle, we shall ^^°- ^■— Plants need water. 

find that the leaves of the seedling that we put in the 
empty bottle will soon droop, while those of the other 
will remain fresh. (Figure 8.) This experiment 
teaches some important things about plants. First, it 

21 




22 



PLANTS AND WATER 



shows that the leaves of plants growing in a rather dry 
atmosphere must have a constant supply of water, or they 
can not remain fresh. Second, it shows that the water is 
taken in through the stem. Third, it shows that, in uncut 
plants, the water must come into the stem from the root, 
because our stems were cut at the surface of the ground. 
Evaporation through Leaves. — If we fill two bottles 
of the same size with water, and insert in the neck of one 
of them several small twigs from a growing plant, we 
shall find that the surface of the water will lower much 
faster in the bottle containing the twigs than in the other 
bottle. Where has this water gone? If now we place 
a cool fruit jar over the twigs and hold it there a short 
. time, we shall be able to answer this question. Water 
from the leaves will gather on the inside of the glass, so 
that we can easily see it. If we leave the jar over the 
twigs for half an hour, drops of water will flow down its 

inside surface. This shows that 
some of the water taken up by the 
roots or plants passes off, or trans- 
pires, through the leaves. 

Leaves do not Take in Water — 
If we take the fresh bean plant out of 
the water and put one of its leaves 
instead of the stem into the water, 
we shall find that the other leaves 
soon droop. (Figure 9.) This 
shows that the leaves of the bean 
plant can not take in much water, 
even when they are surrounded by 
it. The leaves of plants can not take in much water, 
either from water or from moist air. 




Fig. 9. — Leaves do 
not absorb water. 



PLANTS AND WATER 2}^ 

Plants Dry the Soil. — Since plants require much water, 
and since their roots take this water from the soil, soil on 
which plants are growing dries much faster than ■ the 
same kind of soil with no plants growing on it. The soil 
seldom contains water enough in dry weather to supply 
crops with all they need. Weeds waste valuable water 
in dry weather; so do the hedges of underbrush some- 
times allowed to grow along fences. The farmer and the 
gardener should constantly study how to prevent the 
waste of soil water in dry weather. We shall learn how 
to do this in a later lesson. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Growing plants consist largely of water. 

This water is taken in by the roots and passes off 
through the leaves as vapor. 

The leaves of plants can not take in much water. 

The soil seldom contains enough water in dry weather 
to supply fully the needs of crops. 

Weeds and useless underbrush waste valuable soil 
water in dry weather. 



4. HOW PLANTS FEED. 



Illustrative material: Dissolve a bit of camphor gum in a 
small bottle of alcohol; then pour a part of the solution into a 
glass sauce dish, and, when the alcohol has evaporated, show the 
recovered camphor. (If conveniences for boiling water are at 
hand, a solution of sugar in water may be used.) 

Burn a little dry hay or straw on a plate, in the presence of 
the class, and show the ashes. Show also a bit of starch, and 
a piece of charcoal to illustrate carbon. 

Solutions — If we 

put a teaspoon fill of 
sugar into a glass 
of water and then 
stir the water with 
the spoon, the sugar 
will soon pass out of 
sight. We say it has 
dissolved in the wa- 
ter. We explain its 
disappearance by 
supposing that i t 
has separated into 
particles that are too 
small to be seen, and 
that these particles 
have entered among 
the particles of the 




Fig. 10.- 



Diagram showing spaces be- 
tween particles. 



water, something as a quart of peas might be poured 
into the spaces between apples in a peck measure. ( Fig- 



24 



HOW PLANTS FEED 25 

lire 10.) If now we evaporate the water from the glass, 
the sugar will again appear in the bottom. 

Mineral Matter in Plants. — A tea-kettle in which well 
water is often boiled usually becomes coated inside with 
a whitish deposit. Well water contains small quantities 
of certain mineral matters dissolved in it. When the water 
evaporates from the tea-kettle by boiling, these mineral 
matters remain in the bottom, just as in our experiment 
the sugar remained in the basin after the water evaporated. 
We learned in Lesson 3 that plants take up water, and 
that this water passes off as vapor from the leaves. The 
water thus taken up by plants comes out of the soil and 
so has certain mineral matters dissolved in it. When 
this water is transpired from the leaves, the mineral 
matters remain, just as they remain in the tea-kettle when 
the water evaporates from it. Some of these mineral 
matters are required by the plant for food. Aside from 
water, the roots can take only dissolved substances. 

Other Matter in Plants — We have now learned how 
plants secure the mineral part of their food. But are 
plants formed entirely of mineral matter? We can 
answer this question by a simple experiment. Mineral 
matter will not burn. If we burn a little bunch of hay or 
straw, the part that will not burn, the ashes, is mineral 
matter. The ashes of the hay were brought up from the 
soil in the water that was taken up by the grass roots. 
When we burn a substance, we separate it to some extent 
into the parts that once came together to make the sub- 
stance. Nearly all of the part of the hay that passes 
off into the air in burning came out of the air while 
the grass was growing. 



26 HOW PLANTS FEED 

Carbon from the Air. — It seems" strange that a part 
of the grass could come out of the air. We can see the 
mineral matter left in the bottom of the tea-kettle, and 
so can easily believe that the soil water contains mineral 
matter. But we can not see the air, and it is hard to 
understand how matter can come out of the air to make 
a plant that we can see, handle and weigh. But, just 
as the soil water has solid mineral matter dissolved in it, 
so the air has a gas called carbonic acid mixed with it. 
This gas is formed of two substances : carbon, which is a 
solid that we can see and handle; and oxygen, a gas that 
we can not see. When the oxygen is taken out of the 
carbonic acid, the solid carbon is left, just as when the 
water is taken out of the sugar solution the solid sugar 
is left. 

Chlorophyll with the Sun making Starch The car- 
bonic acid enters the leaves of plants through very small 
openings. It then enters the cells and comes in contact 
with a substance called clilorophyU, which the cells of 
leaves contain. Here a wonderful change takes place. 
When the sun is shining, the carbonic acid and a part of 
the water" that the cells contain are decomposed, — that 
is, they are separated into the parts that form them. 
Some of these parts, including the carbon, then unite 
again and form a new substance that is very different 
from either the carbonic acid or the water. This new 
substance is starch, or something of very similar compo- 
sition. (Figure ii.) It may be formed in any part of 
the plant that is green, — that is, in which the cells contain 
chlorophyll. But it is formed chiefly in the leaves. 



HOW PLANTS FEED 



27 



Food of Plant Made in Leaves. — This starch or like 
substance formed in the leaves, together with some of the 
mineral matters brought up in the soil water, serves as 
food for the protoplasm of the cells, so that the cells 




Fig. II. — Illustrating the formation of starch. 

increase in number rapidly and thus cause the plant to 
grow. The cells in all parts of the plant, including the 
farthest root tips, are fed by this leaf-formed food. It 



28 HOW PLANTS FEED 

follows that the health of the plant depends upon the 
health of its leaves, 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Certain substances may be dissolved in water. By- 
evaporating the water the dissolved substances may be 
recovered. 

Soil water has certain mineral matters dissolved in it. 
These enter the roots of plants with the soil water. When 
the water passes o£f by transpiration, these mineral mat- 
ters remain in the leaves. 

When we burn plant or animal substance, the ashes 
show nearly the part that came from the soil. The rest 
came from the air. 

Carbonic acid and water are decomposed in the green 
leaves of plants by the action of sunlight. Some of the 
parts unite again to form starch, or a similar substance, 
which nourishes the cells and causes the plant to grow. 

Without healthy leaves a plant can not do well. 



5. HOW PLANTS GROW. 

Illustrative material: Specimens from parts of living plants 
illustrating the root, stem, buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit or 
seed. 

Root Downward, Stem Upward. — Figure 1 2 shows 
a young plant of Indian corn. It grew from the kernel 
to which it is attached. Two tiny shoots 
grew from the kernel. One of these grew 
down into the dark, damp soil to become the 
root; the other grew up into the light to be- 
come the stem. Every seed when it gcr- 
rninatcs, — that is, when it begins to grow, — 
sends out two shoots, one of which tends down- 
ward, and the other, upward. During the life 
of the plant, the stem and root that start in 
the seed normally continue to grow by the di- 
vision and growth of certain groups of cells 
near their tips. 

Root Hairs — Figure 13 shows some very pia'ntiet'of 

,. , , , . ', Indian corn. 

young radish plants that were grown m a seed 
tester. Notice that each tiny white root that grew from 
the seed is clothed with a downy fringe that looks like 
the finest silk. These delicate fibers are called root 
hairs, and they take up water for the plant. The young 
roots of most plants are clothed with root hairs. These 
draw in water from the soil with a certain amount of 
force. This force, aided by some other forces, causes the 

29 



30 



HOW PLANTS GROW 




Fig. 13. — Young radish 
plants. 



water to rise through the stem and to supply all the cells 
with water and with food. 

The Stem. — The stem bears the 
leaves, buds, flowers, and fruit or 
seeds. In upright-growing plants, 
the stem supports these parts at 
some distance above the earth ; 
sometimes, as in the grape-vine, the 
stem climbs upon other objects for 
support; sometimes, as in the mel- 
on, it creeps on the ground; in 
other plants, as the potato and quack 
grass, it may even grow in part un- 
derground. (Figure 14.) As we 
have learned in Lesson 3, the stem 
is the channel through which the 
food prepared in the leaves passes to the roots. 

The Leaves. — The leaves grow out from the stem at 
regular places. If we hold a leaf toward the light, and 
place a finger behind it, we find that the light can pass 
through the leaf. As we learned in Lesson 3, the sun- 
light shinning through the leaf cells prepares the food 
for the cells of the whole plant. The cells of the leaf 
are arranged in thin plates to expose a very large number 
of them to the action of the sunlight. (See Figure 11.) 
The leaves look green because their cells contain green 
chlorophyll. But the cell walls of the leaves are trans- 
parent as glass. 

Leaves Necessary. — We learned in Lesson 4 that the 
health of the plant depends much upon the health of its 
leaves. If insects eat the leaves, or if the leaves are 
picked off or broken, they can not prepare food, and 



HOW PLANTS GROW 



31 



U.St.,- 



tlie cells of the root will not be so well fed ; then the root 
can not grow so fast, and so can not absorb so much 
water for the leaves, 
so the whole plant 
must grow more slow- 
ly. If, from any 
cause, the leaves do 
not receive their full 
share of sunlight, they 
can not prepare their 
amount of food, and 
the plant will 
suffer. The 
leaves of our 
plants should 
b e protected 
from harm as 
far as possible. 
Buds, — Ev- 
ery live part of 
a stem termin- 
ates in a bud. (Figure 15.) If a part of the 
stem is growing, the bud at its tip is not well de- 
fined. But on stems that live through winter, 
when growth ceases, the buds are covered with 
scales, which usually render them easily seen. 
Buds inclosed in scales are called dormant buds. 
In woody stems, a dormant bud commonly forms 
in summer just above the base of each leaf, 
iiuds'. When the leaves drop in autumn, the buds re- 
main. On the return of spring, they expand into new 
leaves or sometimes into flowers. The bud at the end 




Fi 



14. — Potato plant. U. St., under- 
ground stems. R, roots. The tubers 
are the thickened ends of the under- 
ground stems. Much reduced. (After 
Frank and Tschirch). 



32 HOW PLANTS GROW 

of the branch is called the terminal hud. This usually 
expands first. It either forms a flower, and dies, or it 
continues the growth of the stem. The lateral (side) 
hiids, if they expand, either open into flowers, and die, or 
they develop into branches. 

Seeds. — In plants that live through winter, the flowers 
are commonly formed in the buds the season before they 
expand. Many flowers are among the most beautiful and 
fragrant of natural objects. They delight us with their 
colors, their perfume, their freshness, their delicacy, and 
their graceful forms. But the flowers have other uses 
than to please the senses. By means of their flowers, 
plants are able to form the fruits and seeds we prize so 
much for food. Without seeds, many kinds of plants 
would soon pass away, for there would be no more little 
plants to take the places of those that die. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The germinating seed sends out two shoots. One of 
these aims downward to become the root ; the other aims 
upward to become the stem. 

The root fixes the plant in the soil and supplies it with 
water and a part of its food. Roots can not live without 
air. 

In the potato and some other plants, a part of the stem 
grows underground. 

The live terminus of the stem is called the bud. In 
plants that live through winter, the buds are covered 
with scales as growth ceases. 

In plants that live through winter, the flowers are com- 
monly formed the season before they expand. 



6. THE IDEAL SOIL. 

Illustrative material: Jars or boxes containing black garden 
loam, clay, and sand. Mix a small proportion of sand with the 
clay to make a clay loam. Mix a large proportion of sand with 
the clay to make a sandy loam. Pour water on each kind of 
soil, and have the pupils note how rapidly it soaks through in 
each case and also the effect after it has dried. 

Soil a Reservoir for Water. — We learned from Lesson 
3 that plants transpire much water from their leaves, and 
that this water is taken up by their roots. The roots 
must get from the soil as much w^ater as they need or 
the plants can not thrive. The soil receives its water 
from rains and snows, and these at irregular intervals. 
The ideal soil, therefore, must serve as a reservoir to 
receive and hold enough of the rain and the snow water 
to supply the needs of crops. 

Soil Must Be Porous — We learned in Lesson 4 that 
living cells require air as well as food. The live roots 
of plants consist of living cells, not one of which can live 
long without air. The ideal soil must, therefore, be 
porous enough to admit all the air the roots require. 
Rootlets will not grow into clumps or clods that are so 
compact that air can not enter them. It seems strange 
that the soil can supply the roots of plants with both water 
and air at the same time. A soil in proper condition for 
the rapid growth of roots may be compared to a wet 
sponge with air circulating through its pores, while the 
substance of the sponge contains much water. 

33 



34 



THE IDEAL SOIL 



Air and Water in Soil — Fignre i6 will help us to 
understand how the roots of plants are supplied with both 
w^ater and air. The roots of most farm and garden 
crops grow fastest just at the bottom of the layer of soil 
that is turned by the plow. The soil above this point 
is better supplied with air than that below, while the 
subsoil, which is the part below this point, is better sup- 
plied with water than that above. The place where the 
plowed soil rests on the subsoil is, therefore, best supplied 
with both air and water. 



Root&T] 
Gvcim 




Diainat>e 



'\'i\edro'in 
Fig. 1 6. — ^^^ater in the soil. 

Loam — Most farm and garden soils consist mainly of 
a mixture of clay and sand. Such a soil is called a loam. 
Sandy loams contain more sand than clay. Such soils 
dry rapidly. Clay loams consist mainly of clay. These 
retain water much better. The best soil for growing 
crops contains sand enough to let the surplus water move 
downward, and clay enough to hold sufficient water for 
the use of crops. Too much clay causes the soil to 
" bake," — that is, to harden on drying. Soils inclined 
to bake may be improved by manuring, by the addition 
of sand or ashes, and sometimes by the use of lime. 

Drainage Necessary. — If the pores of a soil remained 
filled with water a long time after rain, the air would 
be forced out and the roots of the crop growing on the 



THE IDEAL SOIL 35 

land might be smothered. The ideal soil must, therefore, 
be well drained, so that its pores will not long remain 
filled with water even in wet weather. This means that 
the subsoil must permit the surplus water to pass through 
it rather easily. 

Tiling. — Soils over a subsoil containing too much clay 
dry out slowly in spring, and after heavy rains. Such 
soils may often be improved by draining, — that is, by 
providing ways for the surplus water to flow off. Ditches, 
connecting with an outlet on lower ground, may be dug 
through the land. Brick tubes called tiles are often 
buried in such ditches, and the surplus water flows out 
through these. (See Figure i6.) Sometimes brush or 
stones are used in place of tiles. Lands thus drained are 
often among the best for farming and gardening. 

Plant Food in Soil. — We learned from Lesson 4 that, 
with the exception of carbon, the food of plants comes 
from the soil, and that it is dissolved in the soil water. 
If the soil does not contain food enough, the plants can 
not grow well, even though they have everything else 
that they need. The ideal soil must have sufficient plant 
food in a form that can dissolve in water to supply the 
needs of crops grown upon it. In the next three lessons, 
we shall learn about supplying the soil with plant food. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The soil serves as a reservoir to catch and hold the 
water that falls in rains and snows, and to give it out as 
crops need it. 

The soil should be porous enough to admit plenty of 
air to the roots of plants. 



36 THE IDEAL SOIL 

The soil is commonly best supplied with water and air 
at the bottom of the layer turned by the plow. 

The subsoil should be well drained, so that the surplus 
water can pass down quickly. 

The soil should contain enough plant food, in a soluble 
condition, for the needs of crops. 



7. HOW TO KEEP THE SOIL FERTILE. 

Illustrative material: Two jars or dishes, rain water, well 
water, two small pieces of gauze, and a few kernels of wheat. 
A small sample each of nitrate of soda (chile saltpeter), phos- 
phoric acid, and caustic potash. These may be purchased at a 
drug store, and illustrate common forms in which these sub- 
stances are used by plants. 

How to Make the Land Poor. — If we dissolve an ounce 
of sugar in a glass of water, and then dip otit a teaspoon- 
ful of the solution, of course we take out a part of the 
sugar. We learned in Lesson 4 that plants take up soil 
water containing dissolved mineral matters. Now, if 
these plants are taken off the land on which they are 
growing, the soil can not contain so much soluble mineral 
matter as it contained before. If we continue to raise 
crops on the land, and to take them off and sell them 
without returning any soluble mineral matter to the soil, 
the soil will soon become " poor," — that is, there will 
not remain enough of some mineral matters to feed plants 
well. 

Certain Food Required by Plants When a painter 

wishes to prepare some paint to match a particular shade 
of color, he mixes a certain amount of paint of two or 
more colors; if he uses a larger or a smaller quantity 
of one of these colors, or if he adds another color he does 
not get the tint he desires. It is just so when Mother 
Nature builds up a wheat plant ; she uses certain amounts 
of a definite number of materials from the soil, and can 

37 



38 



HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 



not vary these amounts much, nor can she use one ma- 
terial instead of another. When the carpenters that are 
building a house run out of nails, their work must stop 
until more nails are provided; or, if they try to make 

their nails hold out by 
using less than the 
usual number, the 
house will not be strong 
and may be blow^n 
down by the first hard 
wind. Just so, if one 
of the soil materials 
that go to make up a 
plant runs short, the 
plant must stop grow- 
ing, or the growth 
made w' ill be unhealthy, 
and the plant will fail 
from disease. 

Soil Water Holds 
Plant Food. — Figure 
17 shows some wheat 
plants growing in wa- 
ter in two jars. The 
right-hand jar contains 
rain water, and the left- 

FiG. 17. — Plants growing in water. ... . ,, 

hand jar contams well 
w^ater, — that is, water that has come out of the soil. 
Rain water has almost nothing dissolved in it, because, 
when water evaporates into the air, the dissolved ma- 
terials it contained are left behind. In this experiment, 




HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 39 

the water in both jars was boiled before beini^ put in. 
The rain water was boiled to drive off the gases it had 
taken from the air, and the well water was boiled to evap- 
orate a part of the water and thus to make stronger the 
solution of mineral matters it contained. From the 
picture, we see that the plants in the jar containing 
the well water are growing faster than those in the 
other jar. This is because the well water contains 
in solution the materials that the wheat plant needs for 
food. The rain water, on the other hand, contains al- 
most no food material. The only reason the plants can 
grow in the rain water at all is that the seed contains a 
small amount of food. When this food is used up, the 
plants will soon starve. 

Make-up of Rich Soil. — Chemists have found that 
certain quantities of about a dozen different materials 
are used by plants for food. The one that is used in 
largest proportion is carbon, and, as we learned in Lesson 
4, this comes fom the air. All the others come from the 
soil. But of all the substances that come from the soil, 
only three often run short ; most soils contain a large 
surplus of all the others. The three that often fail are 
called nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These are 
the only substances, then, that the farmer or gardener 
needs to put on his land often to keep it " rich," — that 
is, to give it all it needs to produce good crops ; and. since 
of these nitrogen is most often lacking, it must be sup- 
plied most generously to the soil. 

Manure. — W'hen plants of any kind grow on the land, 
they take out of the soil what they need for food. If we 
put these plants back on the land and let them decay, 



40 HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 

they return to the soil the plant food they took from it in 
growing. Almost all plant material, therefore, is good 
to put on the ground to make it rich or fertile. Since 
animals grow by eating plants, or by eating other animals 
that grew by eating plants, most animal matter is also 
good to fertilhe the land. Manure, which is decaying 
plant or animal matter from barnyards, stables, slaughter 
houses, etc., is the most common material used to fertilize 
the soil. 

Wood Ashes. — Wood ashes contain the mineral mat- 
ters that the trees from which the wood was obtained 
took from the soil when they grew. Wood ashes, there- 
fore, are valuable for making the soil fertile. If they 
have not been leached, — that is, if they have not been 
exposed to water, they contain much potash and some 
phosphoric acid, but no nitrogen. If they have been 
leached, the potash has been mostly washed out. 

Commercial Fertilizers. — In some parts of the world, 
deposits are found that are rich in nitrogen, in phosphoric 
acid, or in potash, and those materials are mined for fer- 
tilizers of the soil. Some manufacturing establishments 
have waste products that are useful as fertilizers. We 
can, therefore, buy fertilizers in the market as we can buy 
coal or lime. But commercial fertilizers, as such fertiliz- 
ers are called, are rarely so cheap or so good for the soil as 
manure is, hence it is best for the farmer and gardener 
to depend, as far as possible, on manure to enrich their 

soil. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

■ Plants are formed of certain substances in nearly defi- 
nite proportions. Other substances can not be substituted. 



HOW TO KEEP SOIL FERTILE 4 1 

If one food substance in the soil fails, growth of the 
plant must cease, or, if the growth continue, it must be 
unhealthful. 

Wheat and other plants can be grown in well water, 
as long as the water contains the necessary food materials. 

About a dozen different substances are used by plants 
for food; but. of these, only three, nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash, are likely to fail in the soil. 

Almost all plant or animal materials are good to use for 
enriching the soil. Unleached ashes contain much potash 
and some phosphoric acid. 

Fertilizers may be purchased in the market, but the 
barnyard and stable manures are generally cheaper and 
more satisfactory than commercial fertilizers. 



8. HUMUS IN THE SOIL. 

Illustrative material: A small quantity each of clay, sand, 
and leaf mold. Swamp muck or dark-colored garden soil may 
be substituted for the leaf mold, if the latter can not con- 
veniently be obtained. 

Humus Defined. — If we dig up the ground at the bot- 
tom of a hollow in the woods where the leaves have gath- 
ered and decayed for centuries, we find the soil there very 
dark-colored and very porous. It is dark-colored be- 
cause it consists almost entirely of Iiiiiiuts, a substance 
that is always formed where vegetable matter decays in 
the soil. Humus is the vegetable or animal matter in 
which the process of decay is well advanced, but not com- 
plete. 

Black Soil. — The prairie lands of the United States are 
very rich in himitis, because the prairie grasses grew and 
decayed on them for centuries before they were used for 
farming. The soil of marshes is usually very dark-col- 
ored, because, like the leaf mold of the woods, it consists 
largely of humus. Whenever a farmer or gardener adds 
vegetable or animal matter to his soil, and permits it to 
decay there, he makes his soil richer in humus. The 
more often a soil is manured with such matter, the darker 
colored it is as a rule. 

Humus Helps Growth of Plants. — Humus in the soil 

helps the growth of plants in several ways : it enables the 

soil to hold more water than it otherwise would ; it tends 

42 



HUMUS IN THE SOIL 43 

to prevent the surface of the soil from baking ; it absorbs 
ammonia (which contains nitrogen) from the air, and 
thus aids in fertihzing the soil; it also serves to some 
extent as plant food. 

Cropping Land. — When land is cropped year after year 
without being manured, it loses much of its humus, as 
well as much of its mineral plant food. Such a soil is 
said to be " run down " and it rarely produces good crops. 
It can be restored to a fertile condition only by the appli- 
cation of the humus and the plant food that it lacks. 
This may cost for a time as much as the crops from the 
land are worth. It is, therefore, very unwise to crop 
land long without restoring the humus and the plant food 
that are removed in the crops. 

The Best Fertilizer. — The best way for the farmer or 
gardener to supply his land w^ith humus is to use plenty 
of stable or barnyard manure. Not only does this ma- 
terial produce humus, but, in its early stages of decay, 
it absorbs some water from the air, and, as this water 
contains ammonia, it adds some nitrogen to the soil from 
the air. It also tends to warm the soil, for it gives out 
heat in decaying and also absorbs some heat from the air. 

Plowing Crops Under. — Another way of adding humus 
to the soil is by plowing under unharvested crops, such 
as clover, rye, turnips, or buckwheat. This is often a 
cheaper w^ay of supplying the soil w'ith humus than put- 
ting on stable manure, but, except in the case of clover 
(Lesson 9), these crops do not add fertility to the soil, 
because they take as much ])lant food out oi the soil as 
they return it. Tliey are, therefore, less valuable than 
stable manure. 



44 HUMUS IN THE SOIL 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Vegetable or animal matter in which decay is well ad- 
vanced, but not complete, is called humus. 

The presence of humus enables the soil to hold more 
water than it otherwise would, and tends to prevent the 
soil from baking-. 

Humus absorbs a little ammonia from the air, and 
serves to some extent as plant food, because the ammonia 
contains nitrogen. 

" Run down " soil can be restored to fertility only by 
supplying the humus and plant food that it lacks. 

Stable and barnyard manures are the best sources of 
humus in the soil. Plowing under unharvested crops 
also enriches the soil with humus. 



9. HOW CLOVER HELPS THE FARMER. 

Illustrative material: Plant not over one fourth of an inch 
deep in moist garden soil in a fruit jar, two or three hundred 
seeds of common red clover. Screw on the cap loosely, and 
place the jar in a warm place. When the plants are well grown, 
fill the jar with water and let it stand until the soil is thoroughly- 
soaked; then gently draw the plants out so as to injure the roots 
as little as possible. Pass the plants about the class, and let the 
pupils find the swellings on the roots. 

Clover a Fertilizer. — Nearly every boy and girl knows 
the clover plant, with its three (rarely four) oval leaflets 
and its pretty red or white blossoms. They know, too, 
that all farm animals are fond of clover, both fresh and 
made into hay. The intelligent farmer knows that the 
clover plant is valuable not only for pasture and hay, but 
also as a fertilizer of the soil. 

Clover Takes Nitrogen from the Air. — Figure i8 
shows a young clover plant. By looking closely at the 
picture, we may see little swellings or knobs on the 
larger roots. While these knobs, or tubercles, as they 
are called, are not so pretty as the leaf or the flower, they 
are full of interest to the educated farmer, for they serve 
as minute laboratories for the manufacture of nitric acid 
in the soil, and thus they supply the plant with nitrogen, 
the most important kind of plant- food. 

Nitrates — The housekeeper can not make bread out of 
unground wheat, however much she may have of it. The 
grain must first be ground and sifted, and then the fine 

45 



46 



HOW CLOVER HELPS THE FARMER 



flour, when combined with yeast, will make good bread. 
About four fifths of the air consists of nitrogen, but, just 
as the unground wheat can not be used for bread, so this 
nitrogen can not be used directly by plants as food because 
it is not in the right form. The nitrogen must first unite 
with certain substances 
in the soil and form what 
are called nitrates before 
the plant can use it for 
food. 

Surplus of Nitrates 

The little swellings on 
the clover root serve as 
houses in which live 
swarms of minute beings — 
that change the nitrogen 
of the air into nitrates. 
These not only supply 
the clover plant on which 
they live with the ni- 
trates it needs for food, 
but they furnish more 
than the plant needs, and 
so make the soil more 
fertile. Even if the 
farmer mows down the 
clover and uses it for hay, or if his cattle eat it off, the soil 
will be richer in nitrates than it was before the clover was 
planted. 

Potash Needed. — The young clover plants begin to 
supply nitrates to the soil when they have been growing 




Fig. 1 8. — Tubercles on clover roots. 



HOW CLOVER HELPS THE FARMER 47 

for a few days, and continue to do so as long as they 
continue to grow. Clover does not, however, enrich the 
soil with any kind of plant food except nitrates. If we 
continue to grow clover on the land and to remove the 
crop every year, the land is likely to become poor in pot- 
ash and phosphoric acid, unless we add these to the soil. 
Unleached wood ashes used on clover land would supply 
all the food materials needed by the common farm crops. 

Other Plants Similar to Clover — Clover is not the 
only plant that yields nitrates from the swellings on its 
roots. Peas, beans, vetches, lentils, alfalfa, and certain 
other plants, do the same. Crops that add nitrogen to 
the soil are often called nitrogen gatherers. These crops 
are very useful to the farmer, because they supply the soil 
with the most important kind of plant food, and thus, to 
some extent, they take the place of manure, of which 
farmers are almost always in need. 

Nitrogen Gatherers Make Rich Land. — The farmer 
should frequently grow clover, or some other nitrogen- 
gathering crop, on his land. Land from which a crop is 
harvested at midsummer, and which will not be needed 
until the following spring, may often better be sown to 
clover than left idle. As a rule, the farmers that grow 
and feed the most clover have the most fertile farms. 
The clover plant should be regarded as a symbol of good 
luck to the farmer, whether it has three leaves or four. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The root of the clover plant bears little swellings which 
serve as laboratories for the production of nitrates in the 
soil. 



48 HOW CLOVER HELPS THE FARMER 

The clover crop enriches the soil in nitrogen, even when 
it is cut and removed for hay, or eaten off by cattle. 

Clover removes some phosphoric acid and potash from 
the soil. (See Lesson 10.) 

Unleached wood ashes, applied to clover land, will fur- 
nish the materials removed by the clover, and thus will 
maintain the fertility of the soil. 

Peas, beans, vetches, lentils, alfalfa, and certain other 
plants, also add nitrogen to the soil. 

As a rule, the farmers that grow and feed the most 
clover have the most fertile farms. 



10. THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 

Illustrative material: Reproduce Figures 19, 20, and 21 on the 
blackboard, using different colored crayons to represent the 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 

Plant Foods Prepared Slowly. — We learned in Lesson 
8 that cropping the farm tends to make the soil " poor." 
Another process, however, tends to keep the soil fertile 
in spite of the cropping. We learned in Lesson 4 that 
roots can take in plant food only as it is dissolved in 
water. Most soils contain phosphoric acid and potash 
that are not yet dissolved in water, and so are not in 
condition to be used by plants. These undissolved food 
materials are slowly dissolved by the action of carbonic 
acid in the soil; hence the soluble phosphoric acid and 
potash tend to increase slowly in uncropped soils. Some 
ammonia also is washed down from the atmosphere by 
rains and snows, and this tends to increase the nitrogen 
in the soil. But these influences do not, in themselves, 
furnish enough plant food to produce a good crop every 
year. 

Rotation of Crops. — Some products, as wheat and to- 
bacco, remove much fertility from the soil ; others, as 
butter, remove very little. If we raise only those prod- 
ucts that remove much fertility, our soil will, of course, 
grow " poor " faster than if we grew a part of the time 
those that remove only a little. In the latter case, the 
fertility furnished by the soil and atmosphere may be 

49 



50 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 



more than the amount removed, even if no manure be 
apphecl. Farmers have found it wise to miake what is 
called a " rotation of crops/' — that is, to change the crop 
raised on a given field from year to year, rather than to 
raise the same crop year after year. Without rotation, 
certain fields on the farm would soon become too " poor " 
to produce good crops, while others would have more 
plant food than the crop needs. 

Tobacco Raising Makes Land Poor. — In the pictures 
shown in this lesson, the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash removed from the soil by i,ooo pounds 



Tobacco 



over 



•-.';▼**!:!«•«:- 



If 





























































— 1 










































'-y 


Iv-.l 


K 


y. t 


^. ■' 


' ■* 


'^■ 




■'•t^ 


--„T 




r'"ifc"/ 



a. < 



Q. ■»; 



Fig. ig. — Showing the pounds of plant food removed by i,ooo pounds of Vir- 
ginia leaf tobacco, and by i,ooo pounds of clover. 

each of several different crops, are shown in pounds. 
E^ch small square indicates one pound. From Figure 
19 we learn that tobacco removes large amounts of nitro- 
gen and potash. More than 8,000 pounds of average 
barnyard manure would be required to furnish the nitro- 
gen removed by 1,000 pounds of Virginia leaf tobacco. 
Tobacco is, therefore, not a profitable crop to raise unless 
it can be sold for a very high price. 

Corn, Wheat, and Oats Require Nitrogen. — From Fig- 
ure 20 we learn that Indian corn, wheat, and oats remove 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 



51 



nitrogen chielly, but that they require far less of this 
than does an equal weiglit of tobacco. We observe also 
that Indian corn reduces the soil fertility less rapidly than 
oats or wheat. One thousand pounds of average barn- 

Inaian Corn Wneat. Uats 

. rn , 



iu> 



^ 






;*sw^ *^^ 




,. ''''i V/'' £ \ ■.•.''/§•••■■• \ 



0-< 



Fig. 20 — Showing the amounts of the three most important plant foods removed 
from the soil by 1,000 pounds each of the grain of Indian corn, wheat, and 
oats. 

yard manure contain about five pounds of nitrogen. 
This enables us to compute the number of tons of barn- 
yard manure required to furnish the nitrogen for i,ooo 
pounds of each of the grains named. 

Beef 




M;lk 



(Strowbeiries 



BuUer 






o - 



ff< 



Fig. 21. — Showing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash re- 
moved from the soil when 1,000 pounds each of beef, milk, and butter are sold. 

Dairying Removes Little Fertility. — From Figure 21 
we learn that beef removes about as much nitrogen, pound 
for pound, as wheat, and more phosphoric acid. But 
beef is worth two or three times as much per pound as 



52 THE ROTATION OF CROPS 

wheat, while the amount of beef sold from the land is 
less than that of wheat. It is, therefore, usually more 
profitable for the farmer to produce beef than wheat. 
The plant food removed, the price in the market, and 
the labor required to produce a crop, must all be consid- 
ered in estimating the profits in raising it. It appears 
from the picture that butter removes very little plant food 
of any kind from the soil, while it is worth from ten to 
twenty times as much per pound as wheat. The labor 
required to produce butter is, however, much greater 
than that required to produce wheat. 

Rotation Suggested — These pictures, in connection 
with Figure i8, suggest a rotation of crops for the 
farmer. After raising for a time crops that remove much 
nitrogen, as wdieat, oats, Indian corn, or tobacco, it would 
be wise to sow the land to clover and some kind of grass, 
and to feed the product to cattle for two or more years. 
The clover will enrich the soil with nitrogen, while the 
small amounts of phosphoric acid and potash removed 
by the milk, butter, or beef, will enable the soil to become 
stocked with these plant foods by the natural method de- 
scribed in the first paragraph of this lesson. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The action of carbonic acid in the soil slowly reduces 
phosphoric acid and potash to a soluble form, so that 
they may be used by plants. 

Some nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is Avashed 
from the atmosphere into the soil by rains and snows. 

Tobacco removes very large quantities of nitrogen and 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 53 

potash from the soil, hence it can be profitable to the 
farmer only when it sells for a very high price. 

The grain crops remove chiefly nitrogen from the soil. 
They are, therefore, expensive crops for the farmer to 
grow. 

Beef is usually a more profitable product than wheat, 
not because it removes less plant food, but because it sells 
for much more per pound. 

Milk and butter remove very little plant food from the 
soil. 

In estimating the profits of producing a given crop, 
the soil fertility removed, the market price, and the labor 
required in production, should all be considered. 

Land should be frequently seeded to clover and grass, 
and the product should be fed to livestock, to prevent the 
soil from losing fertility. 



11. SAVING SOIL MOISTURE. 

Illustrative material: Two lamp chimneys, a pan, fine soil 
and coarse soil. 

Save Moisture in Soil. — We learned in Lesson 2 that 
water passes off the surface of the soil by evaporation, 
and that other water comes from below to take its place. 
We also learned in Lesson 3 that plants take large 
amounts of water from the soil, and that few field crops 
receive as much water as they need in summer. With 
the proper knowledge, the farmer and the gardener may 
do much to prevent the useless loss of moisture from the 
soil in dry weather. 

Manure to Make Humus. — We learned in Lesson 8 
that the presence of humus enables the soil to hold more 
water. A soil that contains plenty of humus catches 
more water when it rains than one that contains little 
humus. It holds the water longer in dry weather. One 
of the best ways to retain moisture in the soil is to use 
plenty of barnyard and stable manure, and thus keep the 
soil full of humus. Commercial fertilizers do not. to 
any great extent, help the soil to retain water. 

Coarse and Fine Soil Compared. — In the experiment 
shown in Figure 22, the two lamp chimneys were filled 
to the dotted line with dry soil that had been sifted 
through a flour sieve. Enough of the soil that would 
not pass through the sieve was then added to the left 
chimney to raise the soil to the same height as that in 

54 



SAVING SOIL MOISTURE 



55 



the other. A Httle water was then added to the pan. 
The water rose through the soil by capillary attraction at 
about the same rate in both chimneys until it reached the 
coarse soil in the left one. It continued to rise to the top 
of the soil in the right-hand chimney, but was held back 
several hours by the coarse soil at the top of the left one. 
This experiment shows that, if the surface of the land 
is covered with an inch or two in depth of rather coarsely 



CoirseSo'd- 
ima.Ccr Uvtl- 



tifaUp level 




Fig. 22. — Effect of pulverizing soil. 

crumbled soil, the water will rise through this layer much 
more slowly than through the soil below. Since evapora- 
tion occurs almost entirely at the surface of the soil, 
this crumbled layer greatly hinders evaporation. Plants 
on such land will have the water thus saved for growth. 
This crumbled surface is formed by passing over the 



56 SAVING SOIL MOISTURE 

ground with a cultivator. In the garden, it may be 
formed with the hoe or rake. A hard rain storm com- 
pacts the soil more or less, hence the crumbling should be 
repeated after every such storm. 

Mulching. — When the surface of the soil can not be 
easily cultivated, as in closely-planted orchards, evapora- 
tion may be reduced by covering with a layer of straw, 
leaves, shavings, tan bark or manure. This operation is 
called mulching. These materials act like crumbled soil 
to hinder the passage of soil water to the surface. Trees 
usually grow much faster on land that is cultivated or 
mulched than on that covered with a growing crop, be- 
cause their roots are better supplied with water. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Plowing manure into the soil helps it to catch and hold 
rain water. 

A surface layer of crumbled soil, which may be formed 
with the cultivator or rake, reduces evaporation, and so 
saves water for the crop that is growing on the land. 

A mulch of litter may be used instead of a layer of 
crumbled soil, to hinder the rise of water to the surface. 



12. THE PARASITES OF PLANTS. 

Illustrative material: Portions of a plant that are being in- 
jured by an insect or a fungous disease. A blighted twig from 
an apple or pear tree, a scabby apple or potato, or a smutted 
head of grain will illustrate the latter. 

The Potato Beetle. — Nearly every American boy and 
girl has seen the potato beetle. (Figure 23.) This is 
an insect that feeds on 
the leaves of the potato 
plant. The potato 
beetle is a parasite of 
the potato plant. There 
are also very small 
plants that sometimes 
grow within and be- 
tween the cells of the 
potato plant, causing 
the leaves to die, and 
the tubers to rot. Any 

animal or plant, that r'°- -•5 — I'otato beetles, larva, and eggs. 

lives in or within a larger animal or plant, feeding 
upon its substance, is called a parasite. The plants 
that live upon or within animals or other plants mostly 
belong to the class knowai as fungi. A single plant of 
this class is called a fungus, and parasites of this class 
are called fungus parasites. Parasites are generally 
harmful to the plants or animals on which they live. 
Poison for the Potato Beetle — We learned in Lesson 

57 




58 THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 

4 that the food for the living cells of plants is mostly- 
formed in the leaves, and that whatever destroys the 
leaves cuts off a part of the food supply of the plant. 
Every American farmer knows that he must destroy the 
potato beetle or it will nearly destroy his potato crop. 
Since the potato beetle eats the leaves, by putting poison 
on the leaves we can poison the beetle. For this purpose, 
a deadly poison called Paris green is much used. One 
ounce of Paris green may be stirred into twelve gallons 
of water, and the mixture sprinkled on the plants. Or 
an ounce of Paris green may be well mixed with nine 
pounds of land plaster and the mixture dusted on the 
plants. Most other insects that eat the leaves of plants 
may be destroyed in the same way as the potato beetle. 
Plant Lice — Those who have the care of house plants 
have seen a small green insect on the under side of the 

leaves. This insect, commonly called 

\ / the green fly or the plant louse ( Figure 

^^^^^^ 24), does not eat the leaves as the po- 

/Tl-' "^^s^ tato beetle does. And yet it injures 

Pt- /wzlv ^^^^ plants on which it lives. It does 

/ \. "M, \ this by sucking out the sap, thus rob- 

^^^ bing the cells of water and food. Since 

it does not eat the leaves, we can not 

Fig. 24. — Plant louse. . . , . . , , 

poison it by poisoning the leaves, as in 
the case of the potato beetle. To destroy the green fly 
and other sucking insects, use some substance that pre- 
vents their breathing. Strong soap suds, tobacco water, 
or kerosene mixed with water, sprinkled on this class of 
insects, usually destroys them. In greenhouses, tobacco 
smoke is much used for the green fly. 



THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 



59 




Fungus Parasites. — The fungus parasites are often 
quite as harmful as injurious insects. The bHght of the 
pear tree, the smutted heads of 
grain (Figure 25), the rotting 
pkims and cherries on the 
trees and grapes on the vines, 
are examples of plant diseases 
due to injurious fungi. We 
have learned to prevent some 
of the injuries caused by 
fungi. It is usually important 
to apply our preventive before 
the disease appears, otherwise 
it may come too late to be 
helpful. 

Bordeaux Mixture. — To 
prevent harmful fungi, the so- 
called " Bordeaux mixture " 
is most used. To make this, pj^ 
put five gallons of water into a 
wooden vessel holding at least twelve gallons, and in 
this water hang a cloth sack containing one pound of 
copper sulfate (also called bluestone and blue vitriol). 
(Figure 26.) In another wooden vessel, slack one pound 
of fresh c[uicklime in five gallons of water. When the 
copper sulfate has all dissolved, and the lime has all 
slacked, stir up the lime and water and strain the mixture 
slowly through a coarse cloth into the copper sulfate solu- 
tion. The coarse part that will not go through the cloth 
may be thrown away. The mixture is best put on the 



IG. 25. — Heads of oats affected 
with smut. Reduced one-half. 



6o 



THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 



plants with a spraying pump. (Copper sulfate is poison- 
ous, although less so than Paris green.) 

Oat Smut and Wheat Smut — ■ The oat smut or wheat 
smut attacks the plant if the seed that is planted is 
smutty. To prevent this, it is necessary to destroy the 
smut fungi on the seed before planting. The best rem- 
edy for this disease is formaldehyde. This is a chemical 
that may be purchased at the drug store. One pound 
of formaldehyde to fifty gallons of water will give the 
proper strength. Soak the grain in this chemical for 

about twenty minutes, 
and then spread it out 
so that it may dry with- 
out heating. 

It is probable that 
farmers suffer a loss of 
fully one-fifth of their 
pats and wheat through 
the growth of smut on 
the grain. This loss 
may be entirely pre- 
vented by the use of formaldehyde as directed. The 
same treatment will prevent potato scab. 

Parasites are Numerous. — The harmful parasites of 
plants are so numerous that we can not name them all 
here. The methods used for destroying or preventing 
insects and fungi are also numerous. The farmer and 
the gardener may obtain books that name the leading 
parasites that injure each crop, and that give the best 
known methods of avoiding damage from them. It is 
necessary to keep careful watch for harmful parasites, 




Fig. 26. — Making Bordeaux mixture. 



THE PARASITES OF PLANTS 6l 

Otherwise they may do much harm before their presence 
is discovered. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Plants are often injured by parasites, — that is, by ani- 
mals or other plants that live on or within them. 

Most insects that eat the leaves of plants may be de- 
stroyed by poisoning the leaves with Paris green mixed 
with water or land plaster. 

Many insects that suck out the sap of plants, without 
eating the leaves, may be destroyed by being sprinkled 
with strong soap suds, tobacco water, or a mixture of 
kerosene and water. 

Many injurious fungi may be prevented by spraying 
the plants on which the damage is feared with the Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

The use of formaldehyde may prevent the growth of 
smut on oats and wheat. 

The farmer and gardener may learn from books about 
many harmful parasites not here named, and how to pre- 
vent damage from them. 



13. SEEDS AND SOIL WATER. 

Illustrative material: Put a few common navy beans into a 
seed tester. This consists of a layer-cake tin, two pieces of 
rather thick cloth, and a piece of galvanized sheet iron or tin 
large enough to fit loosely into the cake tin. (A common table 
plate, covered with a pane of glass, will take the place of the 
cake tin and the sheet iron cover.) The cloths should be boiled 
for ten minutes before they are used as this aids in keeping out 
mold. Wring them out until only moderately wet; place one 
over the bottom of the plate or tin; put the seeds on this; cover 
them with the other cloth; put on the cover; and set the tester 
in a warm place. 

Place a few beans upon a small piece of damp cloth or blot- 
ting paper, cover them with an inverted tumbler and place the 
whole beside the seed tester. 

Seeds Swollen. — If we place a few navy beans, or 
other thin-skinned seeds, between the moistened cloths 




Fig. 27. — Effect of water on seeds. 



of a seed tester, as shown in Figure 27, set the tester in 
a warm room for twenty-four hours, and then examine 
the seeds, we shall find them swollen to nearly twice their 



62 



SEEDS AND SOIL WATER 63 

former size. The seeds have swelled because they have 
taken in, or absorbed, some of the water from the cloths. 
When a dry sponge is soaked in water, it also swells, 
and so does most dry vegetable or animal material. 

Seeds Surrounded with Water. — The beans under the 
tumbler (Figure 2/), have also swelled some, but not so 
much as those in the seed tester. The beans in the seed 
tester have swelled more because they have had a wet 
cloth both above and below them, while those under the 
tumbler had the wet surface below only. 

Press Soil about Seeds. — When seeds are planted in 
moist soil, they absorb water from the soil, just as in the 
seed tester they absorb water from the moist cloths. As 
the beans in the seed tester absorbed water faster than 
those under the tumbler, so seeds planted in moist soil 
will absorb water faster if the soil is pressed closely 
around them than if it is left loose. More of the par- 
ticles will touch the surface of the seed, and so the water 
from the soil particles can enter the seed at more points 
at the same time. The water will also travel faster over 
the soil particles toward the seed, because the pressing 
brings the soil particles closer together. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Most seeds absorb water freely when placed in contact 
with it. 

The more of the surface of seeds that is In contact with 
the wet medium, the faster do they absorb water. 

Seeds absorb water from moist soil faster when the 
soil is closely pressed about them than when it is left 
loose. 



14. SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT 

AIR. 



Illustrative material: Two shallow dishes or saucers, two 
tumblers, and a few grains of wheat. 

Half fill two wide-mouthed bottles or two jelly cups with soil 
that is wet enough to be easily worked up in the hands like soft 
putty. Pack the soil in one of the dishes until the air is well 
pressed out of it, adding enough soil to make the dish half full 
when packed. Leave the soil loose in the other dish. Put a 
few radish seeds on the surface of the soil in each dish and 
cover these to the depth of about a quarter of an inch in the 
dish with the soil unpacked and with packed soil in the other 
dish. Close both dishes and put them in a warm place. 

Air Necessary for Germination. — Figtire 28 shows 
two shallow dishes, in each of which kernels of wheat 

were placed. Enough 
water w^as then added 
to the right-hand dish 
to cover the kernels to 
about half their depth, 
and to the left-hand 
dish to cover them to 
twice their depth. The 
dishes were then set in 
a warm room and cov- 
ered with tumblers to prevent evaporation of the water. 
After two days, the kernels in the right-hand dish had 
germinated, while none of those in the left-hand dish 
had done so. Why did not the kernels in the left-hand 

64 




Fig. 28. — Effect of air on seeds. 



SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT AIR 6$ 

dish germinate? They were in contact with water in 
both dishes, and both dishes were kept in a warm 
room. In the riglit-hand dish, however, the kernels 
were in contact with plenty of air, while in the other 
dish most of the air was shut out. We all know that 
seeds will not germinate so long as they are dry, and that, 
even though they have plenty of water, they will not ger- 
minate in a very cold place. But this experiment shows 
that, when wheat seeds have plenty of water and warmth, 
they will not germinate unless they also have plenty of 
air. The same is true of most of the seeds commonly 
planted on the farm or in the garden. 

Some Seeds Contain Air. — The seeds of some plants 
that grow in water, as the water lily and rice, and of a few 
land plants, as Indian corn, may germinate under water. 
Dry seeds usually contain pores that are filled with air, 
and water also usually contains some air. These seeds 
are able to get enough air from their pores and from the 
water, to enable them to germinate. If they are soaked 
for a time in cold water to expel the air within them, 
and are then sealed up in a fruit jar of water from which 
the air has been expelled by long boiling, they can not 
germinate. No seeds can germinate without access to air. 

Packed Soil Does Not Admit Air. — In the experiment 
shown in Figure 29, a few radish seeds were planted in 
soil that was wet enough to be easily worked up in the 
hands, like soft putty. The soil was then packed down 
closely around the seeds in one of the dishes, and left 
loose in the other. We now see that the radish seeds have 
germinated in the loose soil, while they have germinated 
very poorly, if at all in the packed soil. They failed to 

G. & M. Ag. 5. 



66 



SEEDS CAN NOT GERMINATE WITHOUT AIR 



germinate in the packed soil because the air was largely 
shut out by the too wet and too closely packed soil. 

Wet Clayey Soil 
Excludes Air. 
Clayey soil so wet 
that, with slight pres- 
sure, it becomes like 
soft putty, is too wet 
to plant seeds in. Al- 
though the seeds can 
absorb water rapidly 
from such a soil, they 
rarely germinate well 
in it, for, if it is left 
loose over the seeds, it 
dries out quickly, and, 
if it is packed around 

Fig. 29-— Roots need air. them, it shutS OUt tOO 

much air. Planted seeds should not be watered so often 
as to keep the spaces in the soil filled with water. 
WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Few seeds can germinate unless they have access to 
plenty of air. 

Seeds of some plants can germinate under water, by 
using the air within them, and by absorbing air from the 
water. Seeds that contain no air can not germinate in 
water that contains no air. 

Seeds should not be planted in a clayey soil that is wet 
enough to become, with slight pressure, like soft putty. 

Planted seeds should not be so freely watered that the 
pores in the soil are kept filled with water. 




15. PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED 

SEEDS. 

Illustrative material: Place an inch or more of damp garden 
soil in each of two pint fruit jars, and put twenty navy beans on 
the soil in each jar. Cover them to the depth of about two 
inches with the soil, packing it down firmly in one jar, and 
leaving it as loose as possible in the other. Screw the caps on 
loosely on both jars, and place them in a warm place. 

Packing Loam About Seeds. — If we plant a few live 
navy beans in damp (not wet) garden soil in each of two 
jars, and then pack the soil down closely around the beans 
in one of the jars, leaving it as loose as possible in the 
other, and set both jars in a warm room for two days, we 
shall generally find that a larger number of the beans have 
germinated in the jar in which the soil was packed than 
in the other jar. 

Absorb Water Faster. — We learned from Lesson 14 
that, when we press the soil closely about seeds, the seeds 
absorb water and swell faster than if we leave them loose. 
The seeds can not germinate until they have taken up all 
the water they can hold. Since packing the soil about 
them enables them to absorb water faster, it also enables 
them to germinate sooner, if the soil is not too wet. 

Field Illustration. — Figure 30 shows a picture of a 
part of a recently planted grain field. This field was 
sown by hand, and then harrowed to cover the seed. 
Wherever the man that drove the team stepped, the grain 

67 



68 PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 

has come up better than elsewhere, because the man's 
weight pressed the soil closely about the seed. Farmers 
and gardeners have often noticed this fact, and so they 
have devised various means for packing the soil over 
planted seeds. 

Testimony of a Gardener. — Gardeners often walk with 
very short steps over a row of planted seeds, placing the 
heel of one foot against the toe of the other, so as to step 
on every part of the row. A very successful gardener 
once wrote, " As an experiment, I sowed twelve rows of 
..•.-, sweet corn and 

twelve rows of 
beets, treading in, 
• • after sowing, every 
alternate row of 
each. In both cases, 
those trodden in 
rft . f • *, ., , > came up in four 

Fig. 30. — btfect of pressing the earth closciy ^ 

about seeds. d^yS, whilc thoSC 

unfirmed remained twelve days before starting, and 
would not then have germinated had not rain fallen." 

Rollers. — AVhen farmers plant corn 'with the hand hoe, 
they commonly strike the soil with the flat side of the hoe, 
or often they step on each " hill " after covering it, to 
press the soil about the seed. When grain is sown in dry 
weather, a heavy roller is commonly driven over the land 
to pack the soil about the seed. Grain sowing machines, 
and cornplanters, often have little iron rollers attached 
to them to press the soil over the seed. Gardeners often 
use hand rollers for this purpose. 




PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 69 

Pressing with a Board — Very small seeds, as those 
of tobacco and petunia plants, are often sown on the sur- 
face of the ground without being afterward covered with 
soil. In such cases, the sower commonly lays over them 
a board on which he walks, to press the soil, and to bring 
the seed into very close contact with it. 

Evaporation Makes Packing Necessary. — If the soil 
were always damp on the surface, it would not be neces- 
sary to pack it over the seed. But, since the surface tends 
to dry out by evaporation to the depth of an inch or two, 
planted seeds need to absorb their water quickly in dry 
weather, or the soil may become so dry about them that 
they can not secure enough water for germination. In 
this case, the seeds must wait until rain comes, or until 
watered, and thus the crop will be delayed or it may be 
entirely cut off. Thus, the simple act of pressing the 
soil about the planted seeds will sometimes save a valu- 
able crop that would otherwise be lost. 

Plant Soon after Plowing — When ground is plowed 
in dry weather, the dry surface soil is turned under, and 
the more moist soil from below is brought to the top. If 
seeds are planted at once in this moist top soil, and the 
soil is well pressed about them, they will almost always 
germinate before the surface becomes too dry, even in 
time of rather severe drought. It is important in dry 
weather, therefore, to plant seeds as soon as possible 
after the ground is plowed and prepared. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Pressing the soil about planted seeds hastens ger- 
mination, and sometimes saves a crop. 



70 PACKING THE SOIL ABOUT PLANTED SEEDS 

The pressing is done by stepping on the planted ground, 
or on a board laid upon it, by pressing the ground with a 
hoe, or by rolling it with a roller made for the purpose. 

When freshly-plowed ground is planted, and the soil 
is well pressed about the seeds, germination rarely fails, 
even in very dry weather. 



16. SEED TESTING. 

Illustrative material: Procure an ounce of clover seed and as 
many small patty pans as there are pupils. Put lOO seeds of 
red or white clover in the seed tester. Put in enough seeds of 
oats, barley, Indian corn, peas, beans, and cucumber or melon 
to supply each pupil with at least four of each kind. 

Before taking up the lesson, remove the cover of the seed 
tester, and the upper cloth, and pass the open tester about the 
class, after which remove, with a forceps, the clover seeds that 
have failed to germinate, leaving all the other seeds. Count the 
ungerminated clover seeds, and let the pupils subtract the num- 
ber from ido. Explain what is meant by the per cent of 
germination; i. e., the number of seeds per hundred that will 
germinate. 

At the close of the lesson, give each pupil a thimble full of 
clover seed in a patty pan, and require each one to separate them 
into two classes, putting only clover seed in one place, and 
everything not clover seed in another. 

Use of Seed Tester — We learned in Lesson 13 that 
beans, placed between the moist cloths of a seed tester, 
absorb water freely from the cloths. We now learn that 
seeds of various kinds germinate as freely in the seed 
tester, as when planted in moist soil. By means of the 
seed tester, we can easily find out, before we plant them, 
whether or not a sample of seeds can germinate. 

Age Affects Germination. — Not all seeds can ger- 
minate, even though they appear all right outside. Seeds 
germinate less freely as they become old, and, after a 
certain age, they lose their power to germinate. Some 
kinds of seeds retain their power to germinate much 
longer than others. 

71 



72 



SEED TESTING 



Other Causes Affecting Germination. — Seeds may fail 
to germinate from other causes than old age. Some- 
times they are sorted when too damp, and so become 
musty ; such seeds often fail to germinate. In the pump- 
kin, cucumber, and certain other plants, the seed shells 
are sometimes empty. Seeds of Indian corn sometimes 
freeze before they become dry, and so lose their vitality. 



CHERVIL 
SEA KALE 



1 yr. 



SOY BEAN 

HOP 

INDIAN CORN 

ONION 

PARSNIP 



2 yrs. 



LEEK 

PARSLEY 

PEA 



RHUBARB 
STRAWBERRY 



3 yrs. 



CARROT 
LENTILS 



MUSTARD 
TOMATO 



4 yrs. 



ASPARAGUS 

KALE 

CABBAGE 

CAULIFLOWER 



GARDEN AND 

WATER CRESS 

GUMBO 

LETTUCE 



MUSKMELON 
SPINACH 
TURNIP 



5 yrs. 



BEAN 

EGG PLANT 

WATERMELON 



PUMPKIN 
SQUASH 



6 yrs. 



10 yrs. 



ENDIVE 
CUCUMBER 



OATS 
BARLEY 
WHEAT 



FLAX 
BUCKWHEAT 



Fig. 31. — Showing the average number of years that the seeds named retain 
their power to germinate, under ordinary conditions. 

For these reasons, it is best to test seeds before planting 
them, unless we know that they will germinate. 

How to Make and Use a Seed Tester. — A seed tester 
for use at home may be made of two table plates, and 
two circular pieces of thick cloth large enough to cover 
the bottom of the plates. Put the cloths in boiling water 
for a few minutes before using them, to kill the spores 



SEED TESTING 73 

of fungi they may contain. Wring them out until 
only moderately wet, spread one over the bottom of one 
of tiie plates, and put lOO of the seeds to be tested upon 
it. Cover these with the other cloth, and place the second 
plate on the one containing the seeds, taking care that the 
rims are together. Set the tester in a warm room. Look 
at the seeds from time to time and remove all that have 
germinated. When all seem to have germinated that 
will, subtract the number that failed to germinate from 
lOO. The remainder will show the per cent of live seeds 
the sample contains. Boil the cloths again before using 
them for a second test. 

Importance of Testing Clover Seed Before Purchasing. 
— As we have learned, the clover crop is a very impor- 
tant one to the farmer in many countries. Most farmers 
need to buy their clover seed, and it is generally pretty 
high in price. It is important, therefore, to test clover 
seed before buying it. It is well to procure several dif- 
ferent samples from the seed store, noting the price at 
which each can be purchased. Some of these samples 
will probably contain more dirt, sticks and weed seeds 
than others, and in some the clover seeds will germinate 
better than others. The best sample to buy will be the 
one that gives the largest quantity of live clover seeds for 
the lowest price. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Seeds may fail to germinate from being too old, from 
having become musty in storage, from having been frozen 
before they became dry, and from being imperfectly 
formed. 



74 SEED TESTING 

The age at which seeds lose their vitaHty varies much 
with different kinds. 

A seed tester for home use may be made of two table 
plates and two pieces of thick cloth. 

As a rule, seeds should be tested before planting. 
High-priced seeds should be tested before they are bought. 



17. HOW SEEDS " COME UP. 



Illustrative material: Four glass jars, garden soil, and seeds 
of wheat, radish, pea and bean. 

Planting the Seeds. — Figure 32 shows four fruit jars, 
each of which contains a different kind of plant. About 
two inches in depth of moist garden soil was put into each 
jar. Ten kernels of wheat were then placed on the soil 
in jar No. i, ten seeds of radish in jar No. 2, ten seeds 
of pea in jar No. 3, and ten seeds of navy bean in jar 
No. 4. The seeds in all the jars were then covered about 








t-x 



^ik 



3 




Fig. 32. — Experiment with seeds. 

an inch deep with moist soil, after which the jars were 
closed and set in a warm room. 

Wheat and Radish Plantlets. — The seeds have now 
germinated, and the plantlets have just come up, — that 
is, they have just appeared above the surface of the soil. 
We may see that the plantlets are acting quite differently 
in the different jars. In jar No. i, the blades of wheat 

75 



76 HOW SEEDS " COME UP " 

have reached the surface with very Httle disturbance of 
the soil. In jar No. 2, the radish plantlets seem to have 
had a harder time in coming up. Their chunsy seed 
leaves have lifted and moved the soil in places, and left it 
in slight ridges. 

The Pea Plantlets. — The pea plantlets, in jar No. 3, 
seem to have behaved more like those of the wheat. 
Each appears first as a slender stem to which tiny leaves 
are attached, and this stem seems to have found its way 
among the soil particles without moving them much. 
There are no thick, clumsy seed leaves, as in the radish, 
although its stem is much thicker than that of the wheat 
and quite different from it in appearance. 

The Bean Plantlets. — The plantlets of the bean seem 
to have had the hardest time of all in reaching the sur- 
face. Instead of sending up slender stems, like the peas, 
or thin blades, like the wheat, the now greatly swollen 
beans seem to have been lifted bodily out of the soil, while 
the earth was lifted to make way for them. The plant- 
lets seem to have come up back foremost, with the tops 
pointing downward and the beans seem to have divided 
into halves. A little later the stems straighten up and 
the halves spread apart, each half becoming a very clumsy 
seed leaf, a little like that of the radish, but much larger. 

Two Types. — The different ways in which these plant- 
lets reached the surface illustrate two types. The wheat 
and pea belong to one type, in which the plantlet grows 
directly upward, without being hindered by clumsy seed 
leaves. The seeds of such plants may be rather deeply 
planted, and still their stems will be able to reach the 
surface. The radish and bean belong to the other type, 



HOW SEEDS " COME UP " ^^ 

in which the greater part of what was once the seed is 
forced up through the soil, and appears above the surface. 
If the seeds of such plants are planted deeper than four 
or five times their thickness, the plantlets will be unable to 
lift the soil above them, and so can not come up at all. 
To this class of plants belong, besides the bean and radish, 
the beet, parsnip, carrot, squash, cucumber, melon, clover, 
buckwheat, and, in fact, almost all the common farm and 
garden crops, except plants of the pea family and of the 
grass famil}^ 

Rule for Depth of Planting — The following rule may 
be safely followed for the seeds commonly planted on the 
farm and in the garden : Seeds of plants that come up 
without thick seed leaves, as Indian corn, wheat, rye, 
oats, barley, millet and other grasses, peas, lentils, and 
vetches, may be safely covered to ten times their thickness. 
Other seeds should not be covered more than five times 
their thickness. As a rule, no seeds should be covered 
deeper than is needful to insure a supply of soil moisture. 
It is often desirable to sow a crop in the orchard in sum- 
mer, when the soil is rather dry; for this purpose, it is 
important to choose one the seed of which may be deeply 
planted. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Plants may be divided into two classes with reference to 
the manner in which their plantlets rise through the soil. 

In the pea and grass families of plants, the plantlet 
appears as a slender, pointed shoot that may easily work 
its way among the soil particles. Seeds of this class may 



78 HOW SEEDS " COME UP " 

be planted rather deeply, and so are suitable for planting 
in summer when the soil is rather dry. 

In most other farm and garden crops, the plantlet ap- 
pears with two clumsy seed leaves that can not rise easily 
through the soil. Seeds of this class should not be 
planted deeper than to four or five times their thickness. 

No seeds should be planted deeper than seems neces- 
sary to insure contact with enough soil moisture to enable 
them to germinate. 



18. IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS. 



Illustrative material: Three jars, soil, a few beans and clover 
seeds. 

Small Seeds Not Strong. — A few navy beans were 
planted an inch deep in jar No. i ; a few clover seeds were 
planted the same depth in jar No. 2 ; and a few clover 
seeds were planted a quarter of an inch deep in jar No. 3. 





123 

Fig. 33. — Experiment with beans and clover seed. 

As appears in Figure 33 the plantlets from the beans 
and from the clover planted a quarter of an inch deep 
have come up well, while those from the clover planted 
an inch deep have not. 

Large Seeds are Strong. — Every perfect seed contains 
a plantlet, and some food to nourish the plantlet during 
germination. (See Figure 34.) The larger the seed is, 

79 



8o 



IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS 




as a rule, the stronger is the plantlet, and the more plenti- 
ful is its food supply. This is true of different seeds of 

the same kind as of different kinds 
of seed. The bean plantlets 
in Figure 33 were able to come 
up through an inch of soil be- 
cause they were well supplied with 
food and were strong. The 
clover seeds, as compared with the 
beans, are very small, and the 
clover plantlets, as compared with 
the bean plantlets, are very weak. 
The clover plantlets were unable 
to force their way through an 

Fig. 34.- Diagram of a seed. ^^^^^ ^f g^jj^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^_ 

ing at jar No. 3, they can grow through a quarter inch 
of soil. As a rule, the larger a seed is, the deeper it may 
be covered in planting. 

Planting Very Small Seeds. — As we learned from the 
last lesson, plantlets that bring up thick seed leaves to the 
surface can not grow through so much soil as those that 
do not. It follows that the small-seeded plants whose 
plantlets bring up their seed leaves must have their seeds 
planted in the least depth of soil of all. The clover plant 
belongs to this class, hence clover seed must be planted 
very shallow, or the plants will not come up well. The 
seeds of tobacco and petunia are much smaller than clover 
seed, and they lift their seed leaves in coming up. It is 
unwise to cover the seeds of these plants at all. As we 
learned in Lesson 15, they are commonly sown on the 



IT IS WISE TO PLANT THE LARGEST SEEDS 8l 

surface and pressed into the soil, the surface l)cing kept 
moist hy frequent watering. 

Profit in Planting the Largest Seeds. — Gardeners who 
grow radishes and lettuce under glass for the winter mar- 
ket find that, when they sift their seed and plant only the 
largest, their crops mature so much more evenly than 
when they sow the seeds without sifting, that the plants 
become fit to sell several days earlier. It is sometimes 
possible to grow one extra crop in the winter in this way. 

Reject Poorly-formed Seeds. — Farmers pass their seed 
grain through a fanning mill, to take out the smallest and 
most shrunken kernels. Many reject the smaller kernels 
from the tip ends of their ears of seed corn. By growing 
their crops from the largest seeds, they secure a larger 
yield of grain than they would if they planted the seeds 
without sifting. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Every perfect seed contains a plantlet and a food sup- 
ply. 

The larger the seed, as a rule, the more plentiful is the 
food supply, and the stronger is the plantlet. 

The larger the seed is, as a rule, the deeper it may be 
covered in planting. 

Very small seeds, whose plantlets bring up their seed 
leaves, should be covered but slightly, if at all. 

Gardeners who grow radishes and lettuce for the win- 
ter market find it to their advantage to plant only the 
largest seeds. 

It is generally possible to grow larger crops by plant- 
ing the largest seeds. 

G. & M. Ag. 6. 



19. REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS. 

Illustrative material: A potato tuber, cuttings of the currant 
or grape vine, a cion and a small branch of the apple tree, and 
a bit of grafting cloth. 

Roots Come from Buds. — We have now learned how 
to rear young plants by planting their seeds. Many kinds 
of plants may also be reared from buds. Some kinds are 
reared from buds more often than from seeds. We 



k> V>v>' 




Fig. 35. — A layer. 

learned in Lesson 5 that every live part of a stem ter- 
minates in a bud. In many plants, a bud, with a certain 
part of the stem beneath it, if kept for a time in a favor- 
able place, will form roots of its own, and thus will be- 
come a new plant. Pieces of the roots of some plants, 
as the plum and cherry, if given a good chance, may also 
form buds on each piece, which will develop in due time 
into leafy stems. 

Layering. — One of the simplest ways of rearing plants 
is by layering. Without being cut off, one or more 
branches of a plant are covered with soil. Sometimes the 

82 



REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 



83 



branches are bent down and covered ; sometimes the soil is 
piled up around them. (Figure 35.) Branches thus 
treated are called layers. It is better not to cover 
the tips of the branches. In a few 
weeks, roots will grow from near the buds 
in the covered parts of the stems. The 
stems can then be cut off below the roots 
and be planted in a new place. The cur- 
rant, gooseberry, grape, quince, and many 
other plants, may be propagated, — that is, 
increased in number, — in this way. 

Propagation by Cuttings — A second 
way of rearing plants from buds is by cut- 
tings. A cutting, which is a portion of a 
stem having at least one healthy bud, is |; 
planted in the soil. Roots may then grow 
from the stem, or from the base of the bud, 
while the bud expands into a leafy stem. 
Cuttings made during fall, winter, or early 
spring, are called dormant cuttings. (Fig- 
ure 36.) The grape, currant, orange, 
and many other shrubs, are propagated from 
dormant cuttings. The potato is reared 
from cuttings of the tuber, which is a mod- 
ified stem. Cuttings of woody plants may 
be made in the fall or spring, from wood 
that grew the summer before. They are 
commonly planted in spring in mellow soil, up to their 
top bud. (Figure 37.) Cuttings of some plants, es- 
pecially in cold climates, are better made in the fall, then 
stored in moist sand or soil, and planted in the spring. 




Fig. 36. — Cut- 
tings. 



84 



REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 



Green Cuttings. — Most plants can be reared from so- 
called grcoi cuttings. (Figure 38.) These are made 
from a tender part of the stem, and each one has a leaf or 
a part of a leaf attached. The leaf is left on to prepare 
food for the growth of roots. The cuttings are com- 
monly planted in a greenhouse bed formed of clean, rather 
coarse sand that is kept wet. The sand is usually kept a 




Fig. 37 — Rooted 
cutting. 



Fig. 38. — • a, Cutting of chrysanthemum. 

b. Rooted cutting of coleus. (Both after Bailey.) 



little warmer than the air above it by heating pipes below 
the bed. The cuttings are shaded when the sun shines. 
After roots form, the little plants are potted in small flower 
pots. Green cuttings of many plants will form roots in 
a saucer of coarse sand, in a sunny window, if the pores 
in the sand are kept filled with clean water. 

Propagation by Grafting. — A third way of rearing 
plants from buds is by grafting. This is chiefly used to 
cause fruit trees to bear a better variety of fruit. If a 



REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 



85 



farmer has a tree that bears poor apples, and he wishes 
it to bear good apples, he can graft the tree over. To do 
this, he cuts a few young twigs from some tree that bears 
choice apples, and grafts them into his tree, and, if his 
work succeeds, his tree will bear the choice apples in about 
three years. The tree to be grafted over is called the 
stock and the twigs to be grafted into the stock are called 
cions. 

Cutting Cions. — The cions are best cut late in fall or 
early in spring from firm wood that grew the summer be- 
fore. Sometimes they are not cut 
until they are needed for grafting. 
If cut early, they should be kept, 
until warm spring weather, packed 
in a box with plenty of rather dry 
leaves, in a cool, somewhat damp, 
cellar. The leaves should be 
weighted down, to keep them close 
to the cions. If the main limbs of 
the tree to be grafted over are half an 
inch or more thick, it is better to 
use the cleft-graft; other- 
wise, the zvhip-graft is 
better. 

Cleft - Grafting. — To 
make the cleft-graft, saw 
off about fiive of the main 



\i 




Fig. 40. — 
Cions in cleft. 



Fig. 39. 
— C i o n 
readv for 

cieft-grraft- Huibs that rcach in dif- 

ing. 

ferent directions, at a 




Cio<\ 



Fig. 41. — Position of cions. 



place, if possible, where they are from one to two inches 
in diameter. Then place a sharp hatchet or wide chisel 



86 



REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 



K'- 



flatwise across the center of the end of one of the stubs 
and drive it in until the stub sphts open wide enough to 
admit a lead pencil. Next, with a sharp knife, 
cut two pieces shaped like Figure 39 from one 
of the cions, each piece having two perfect buds, 
pointing as shown. Insert these into the split 
in the stock as shown in Figure 40. Be careful 
to place the cions in the cleft so that the line be- 
tween the bark and wood on the stock touches 
the like or corresponding line on the outside of 
the cion, as shown in Figure 41. Then cover 
the whole 
cut end of 
the stock, 
the cleft at 
the sides, 
and, also, 
the top end 

complete. q f ^^^ 

cions, with grafting wax. 
(Figure 42.) If the stub 
to be grafted is less than 
an inch in thickness, use a 
single cion instead of two. 

Whip- Grafting In 

whip-grafting, the splice is 

made where the stock and 

the cion are of about the 

same thickness. The cuts 

should be made with a sharp knife, as shown in Figure 

43, a. They should then be slipped together, as shown 



Jii 



Fig. 42. — 
Cleft-graft 




Fig. 43. — Whip-grafting. 



REARING PLANTS FROM BUDS 87 

in Fig. 43, b, after which the spHce should be tightly 
wrapped with a narrow strip of grafting cloth, as shown 
in Figure 43, c. 

Grafting wax is made by melting together one ounce 
of beef tallow, two ounces of beeswax, and four ounces 
of rosin. Pour the melted mass into water, grease the 
hands, and work it, when it is cool enough, like molasses 
candy, until it is the color of manilla paper. Grafting 
cloth is made by painting melted grafting wax on thin 
muslin. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Most plants may be propagated from their buds. 

Many plants may be propagated by layering, — that is, 
by covering their lower branches with earth. When 
roots are formed, the branches may be cut off and trans- 
planted. 

Certain plants may be propagated from cuttings made 
of dormant wood. When cuttings of such plants are 
planted in mellow soil, the buds will expand, and roots 
will grow from the stem. 

Most plants may be propagated in the greenhouse from 
green cuttings. Green cuttings of many house plants 
will root in a saucer of wet sand in a sunny window. 

A fruit tree may often be caused to bear better fruit by 
grafting. A part from the tree that bears the desired 
fruit is placed in close contact with a part of the tree it is 
desired to graft, so that the live parts of the bark in the 
two parts come together. The w^ounded surfaces are 
then covered with grafting wax. 



20. TRANSPLANTING. 

Illustrative material: A tree that has been recently dug for 
transplanting. Wash the roots clean and let the pupils see how 
many places they can find where rootlets have been broken off. 
If possible, give the pupils a practical demonstration lesson in 
tree planting out of doors. 

Method of Transplanting. — It is sometimes desirable to 
remove a living plant, the roots of which are growing in 
the natural soil, to another place. This process is called 
transplanting. The more common method of transplant- 
ing is to take the roots or a part of them out of the soil, 
and to replant them in a new place. Sometimes a quan- 
tity of the soil that contains the roots is removed to the 
new place. 

Rough Handling Destroys Fine Roots. — Figure 45 
shows a young oat plant, the roots of which were washed 
out of the soil by a gentle stream of water. Most of the 
roots were saved. Figure 45 shows another oat plant, 
with which an attempt was made to draw the roots from 
the wet soil. Most of the roots were torn off. The 
latter picture shows about what happens when trees or 
other plants are taken up by the common methods. Only 
a few of the oldest and largest roots came up with the 
plant. 

Rules for Transplanting. — We learned from Lesson 5 

that the water of plants is absorbed by root hairs which 

grow on the youngest roots only. When a plant is taken 

up for transplanting, as shown in Figure 45, its power 

88 



TRANSPLANTING 



89 



for taking- up water is mostly destroyed until some new 
roots are formed. Transplanting, as commonly per- 
formed, is therefore a dangerous operation for the plant. 
If the following rules are observed, however, the plant 



seldom fails to grow. 





Fig. 44. — Roots of oat- 
plant. 



Fig. 45. — Oat plant with 
fine roots broken off. 



( I ) Trees and shrubs that drop their leaves in autumn 
should be transplanted only zvhile their leaves are off. 
We learned in Lesson 3 that the water taken up by the 
roots is mostly transpired through the leaves. A tree or 
shrub without leaves needs very little water, because it 
transpires very little. Damage to the roots when the 
leaves are off is far less serious than when the plant is in 
full leaf. In climates having wet falls and mild winters, 
trees and shrubs are better transplanted in the fall ; in 
Other climates, spring is the better time. 



90 



TRANSPLANTING 



(2) Take lip the plant with tJic least possible harm to 
the roofs. With trees and shrubs, enough earth should 
be removed to uncover some of the roots to their ends if 
possible. The younger the roots are, the more readily do 
they send out new roots, hence as many of the younger 




Fig. 46. — Bruised root. 



Fig. 47. — Cleanly cut root. 



roots should be retained as possible. The roots should 
be kept moist while they are out of the soil. 

(3) Trim off broken and mangled roots with a sharp 
knife before replanting. New roots start more freely 
from a smoothly cut end than from a rough and bruised 
one. (Figures 46 and 47.) 

(4) Cut off some of the branches before replanting. 
Since some of the roots have been lost in taking the plant 



TRANSPLANTING QI 

up, the remaining roots will not often be able to supply 
so much water as is needed unless some of the branches 
are also removed. There is more danger of leaving on 
too many branches than of cutting off too many. 

(5) Make the hole large enough to receive the roots 
easily. Bending the roots to make them enter the hole 
may cause disease. Loosen the soil in the bottom of the 
hole, and put in some surface soil. Replant the tree or 
shrub at least as deep as it grew before it was taken up. 

(6) Dip the roots in zvater before replanting. This 
will permit the moist soil to come in the closest contact 
with the roots. 

(7) Pack the moist soil closely about the roots. We 
learned in Lesson 15 that packing the soil about planted 
seeds promotes germination. For the same reason, pack- 
ing the soil about the roots promotes growth. 

(8) // the soil is rather dry, add a pailfid or tzvo or 
water after packing the soil about the roots and before 
putting in all the dirt. The amount of water will depend 
upon the size of the tree or shrub and the dryness of the 
soil. Put in the rest of the soil without treading it down. 
If there are sods, put them on grass side down. 

(9) Some plants, as cabbage and tomato, and the 
evergreen tree, must be transplanted in leaf. Snch plants 
shoidd generally be shaded for a time. 

(10) Mulch the soil about the tree or sJirub if the 
climate is subject to drought in spring. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Ten rules for transplanting. 



21. HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS. 

Illustrative material: Show a number of individual plants of 
the same kind, or of branches from as many plants, and require 
the pupils to search out the differences shown by the same part 
in dififerent specimens. Show also a number of ears of Indian 
corn of different forms and let each pupil pick out the best ear 
according to his own ideal. Always require the reasons for 
the choice. 

Plants Not Alike. — If we go out into a field of ripe 
Indian corn and try to find two corn plants that are alike 
in all respects, we shall fail. One will be a little taller 
than the other; one will have a thicker stalk than the 
other ; or one will have a longer ear than the other. If we 
try to pick out, from a pile of husked corn two ears that 
are just alike, we shall fail again. One ear will be thicker, 
or longer, or will have smaller kernels, than the other. 
We shall even find it hard to select two kernels from the 
same ear that are just alike. Tzuo plants rarely, if ever, 
grozv just alike. 

Select Seeds with a Purpose. — Although two plants 

rarely grow alike, the plants that grow from the seed of 

a parent plant are usually more nearly like the parent than 

they are like any other plant. For example, if one pea 

plant in a row bears longer and more slender pods than 

any other, the plants grown from the seeds in these long 

and slender pods is likely to produce long and slender 

pods also. Some of them will probably be a little more 

long and slender than any of the parent pods. If we 

92 



HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 



93 



keep on planting the peas from the longest and most 
slender pods, we shall by and by have a variety of which 
the pods will be much longer and more slender than those 
of common peas. Thus zuc can change a variety of plant 
by planting year after year the seeds from only those 
plants that shozu some definite variation in a marked 
degree. 

Improvement by Selection. — Figure 48 shows the re- 
sult that has come from saving seeds of the sugar beet 




Fig. 48. — Per cent of sugar in beets. 

from only those plants that had the most sugar in the 
juice. When the beet was first used for making sugar, 
the juice from the sweetest beets had only about eight 
per cent of sugar in it (Figure 48, a) ; but, by testing 
the juice of every root, and saving for seed only those 
of which the juice contained the most sugar, the amount 
of sugar has slowly been increased until now the sweetest 



94 HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 

roots contain about eighteen per cent of sugar in their 
juice (Figure 48, b). 

Consider the Plant in Selection. — We learned from 
Lesson 18 that it is wise to plant the largest seeds. It is 
also wise to select our seeds, as far as possible, from the 
plants that suit us best. The farmer should select his 
Indian corn for seed from only those plants that have the 
kind of ear and stalk that he would like to have in his 
whole field the next year. The gardener should save 
his tomato seeds, if at all, from only the fruits that suit 
him best, that grow on the plants that suit him best. 
The plant sJwiild be considered, as well as the fruit. 

To Raise the Best Crops — If the cultivator is careful 
to select his seeds from the best plants only, his crops will 
tend to improve; otherwise, they will tend to become 
poorer. His land not only should be well fertilized and 
cultivated, but should be planted to only the choicest 
seeds, if he would raise the finest crops. The best farmer 
or gardener is not satisfied with common crops. He 
aims to raise the best of everything, and to raise it by 
the best methods. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Two plants rarely, if ever, grow just alike. 

The offspring of a plant is usually more nearly like 
the parent than like any other plant. 

We can change a variety of plant, by planting year 
after year the seeds from only those plants that show 
some definite variation in a marked degree. 

The sugar content of the juice of the sugar beet has 
been increased from about eight per cent to about eight- 



HOW TO IMPROVE PLANTS 95 

een per cent by using for seed growing only roots that 
were very rich in sugar. 

In selecting seeds, the whole plant should be consid- 
ered, and not simply the part for which the plant is grown. 

One way to improve crops is to practice careful seed 
selection. 



22. THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS. 

Illustrative material: As many flowers, of some kind that 
show well the calyx, corolla, stamens and pistils, as there are 
pupils in the class; a good pocket lens. The larger the flowers 
are that show these parts the better. 

Necessity of Flowers. — Many flowers are among the 
most beautiful and delicate of natural objects. While 
flowers delight us by their beauty and fragrance, they 
serve a very important use both to man and to the plant 
that bears them. Without flowers, plants could not bear 
the fruits we prize so much for food, and the seeds. 
Without seeds, most kinds of plants would soon disap- 
pear, for they could form no more little plants to take 
the place of those that die. 

Parts of the Flower. — Flowers are prettiest when left 
whole, but in this lesson we are to learn the names and 
uses of the different parts of the flower, so we shall need 
to pull the flowers to pieces somewhat. A flower, when 
complete, has four principal parts, each of which has 
a name and use. These principal parts are composed of 
smaller parts, each of which also has its name. 

The Calyx and the Sepal. — Figure 49 shows a cherry 
blossom, cut through lengthwise. At the base, we find 
a green part, marked C in the figure, called the calyx. In 
some flowers, as those of the flax, the calyx is composed 
of several more or less leaflike parts, each of which is 
called a sepal. In the cherry flower, the sepals are 

96 



THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 



97 




united nearly to the top. The calyx is green in most 
flowers, bnt. in the tulip and some other plants, it is of 
another color. The 
calyx forms a sort of 
cup that supports the 
rest of the flower. 

The Corolla and the 
Petals. — T he more 
spreading part of the 
cherry blossom, marked 

cor. in Figure 49, is the ^"^- •*''•— Section of cherry blossom. 

corolla. In the cherry flower, the corolla consists of five 
distinct parts called petals. In many plants, as the pump- 
kin and the morning glory, the petals are united. ( Fig- 
ure 50. ) The corolla is usually of some 
other color than green. This helps to 
make the flower more easily seen, so 
that insects can find it. 

The Stamens and their Parts, — In- 
side the corolla is a group of slender 
organs, s. s. (Figure 49), called sta- 
mens. Each stamen consists of three 
parts : the long and slender portion at- 
tached to the calyx below, called the 
filament ; the swollen portion at the top, 
called the anther; and a dustlike substance found on or 
within the anther, called the pollen. The office of the 
stamen is to produce the pollen, without which vital seeds 
can not be formed. Some flowers have more stamens 
than the cherry blossom, while others do not have so 
many. 

G. & M. Ag. 7. 




Fig. 50. — Calyx and 
corolla of Morning 
Glory. 



98 THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 

The Pistil and Its Parts. — The columnlike part in the 
center of the flower is called the pistil. This, also, con- 
^^^--- sig sists of three principal parts. (Figure 51.) 
The enlarged top is called the stigma; the 

sti egg-shaped base is called the ovary; and the 

slender part connecting the stigma and the 
ovary is called the style. The ovary con- 

^.^,, tains a smaller egg-shaped part, called the 

ovule, which may later become the seed. 

Many flowers have more than one pistil, and 

^tii of'~vvl'id niany ovaries contain more than one ovule 

o^f'^ovary; The pistil foHiis aud protects the ovules 

tfg, stigma!' tmtil they become seeds. 

Pollination. — When the pistil is mature, a drop of a 

sticky liquid forms on the stigma, so that a grain of pollen 

that happens to touch it sticks fast. If the pollen grain 

is from the same flower as the pistil, or from another 

flower of the same kind, it puts out a long tube that 

grows through the style into the ovary, where it comes in 

contact with the ovule, after which the ovule grows into 

a seed. (Figure 52.) The alighting of the pollen on 

the stigma is called pollination. If no pollen grain of 

the same kind alights on the stigma, the ovule does not 

become a seed, but, after a time, it perishes. 

Bees and Insects Aid in Pollinatiorr. — Bees and some 
other insects visit flowers to get honey or pollen from 
them which they use as food. In entering the flowers, 
they become more or less dusted with the pollen, and, 
as they rub against the stigma, they aid much in pollina- 
tion. These insects help flowers to form fruit or seeds, 
and so their visits to the flowers are very useful. 



THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 



99 



Pollen of Another Variety of Plant Sometimes Re- 
quired for Fertilization of the Ovule. — In some of our 
fruits, the pollen 
from one flower 
will not form fruit 
or seed in the pis- 
til of the same 
flower, or of an- 
other flower of the 
same variety. The 
pistil of the Bart- 
lett pear will not 
often form a fruit, 
if it receives pollen 
only from Bartlett 
pear flowers. It 
must receive pol- 
len from some 
other kind of 
pear flower than 
the Bartlett. So 
an orchard plant- 
e d entirely t o 
Bartlett trees sel- 
dom bears much 
fruit. In planting 
an orchard, it is 
wise, as a rule, to 
plant trees of sev- 
eral varieties to- 
gether. 




Fig. 52. — Fertilization of the ovule. The pol- 
len tubes pass throuRh the stigma and style, 
finally entering the cavity of the ovary, 



Lo^C 



lOO THE FLOWER AND ITS PARTS 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

The object of the flowers is to produce seeds, that the 
plant may be reproduced. 

The complete flower has a calyx, a corolla, stamens, 
and a pistil or pistils. The most important parts are 
the stamens and the pistils. 

The stamens have at their top an anther, which is filled 
with a dustlike substance, called pollen. 

The pistil, at its lower part, holds the ovule or ovules 
in the ovary. 

When the pollen falls on the stigma, a growth is sent 
down through the pistil to the ovules, and they become 
seeds. 

Bees and other insects often aid in pollination. 

Some plants require the pollen from another plant of a 
different variety to make the ovules become live seeds. 



23. IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS. 



Illustrative material: Some perfect and some imperfect 
flowers of the stravvbcrrj^, squash, cucumber, melon or pumpkin; 
an ear of Indian corn. 

Imperfect Flowers. — In Lesson 22, we learned that 
pollen from tlie anthers of a flower must find its way to 
the stigma before seeds can be produced. The pollen 
need not come from the same flower that contains the 
stigma. If it "come from any flower of the same kind, 
it will answer. The flowers of some plants do not con- 
tain both stamens and pistils, but some of the flowers 
contain stamens only, and are called staminate; others 
contain pistils only, and are called pistillate. Staminate 
and pistillate flowers are called imperfect. In imperfect 
flowers, the pollen that reaches the stigma always comes 
from some otlier flower. 

Examples of Perfect and Imperfect Varieties. — Fio-- 
ure 53 shows two strawberry l^lossoms. Notice that 

flower A contains sta- 
mens (S) and pistils 
(P). This is a perfect 
flower. Flower B, how- 
ever, is imperfect — 
having pistils only. 
Strawberry flowers like 
B will not often pro- 
duce fruit unless they 
receive pollen from some perfect flower like A. Some 

lOI 




Fig. 53. — Strawberry blossoms; A, perfect; 
B, imperfect (pistillate). 



102 



IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 



Fig. 54- 



varieties of strawberry have perfect flowers, 
and other varieties have pistillate flowers. 
A variety that has pistillate flowers wnll not 
bear fruit unless plants of a variety that has 
perfect flowers are growing close by to fur- 
nish the pollen. 

Determine before Planting the Variety of 
Flowers of a Plant. — By looking at the flow- 
ers of a variety of strawberry, we can tell 
whether it will fruit well if planted alone. 
If it has perfect flowers, it will; if it 
has imperfect flowers, it wall not. 
Before planting a bed of strawberry 
plants we should find out whether the 
variety we desire to plant has perfect 
or imperfect flowers. If the 
■plants are not in bloom, the per- 
son of W'hom w^e procure them 
will generally be able to tell us. 
Flowers of Indian Corn are 
Imperfect. — The Indian corn plant 
has imperfect flowers. The plume- 
like " tassel " that grows at the top 
of the stalk contains many flowers, 
but these flowers usually contain 
only stamens. They yield pollen in 
abundance. Most country boys and 
girls have seen the yellow pollen 
'/ dust on the leaves of Indian corn 
', soon after the tassels form. The 
young ear bears the pistils, which 
-Indian corn. ^rc tlic so-callcd " silk'." Each 




IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 



103 



thread of the " silk," when it receives its grain of pollen, 
produces a. kernel on the ear. If one of the threads 
fails to receive its grain of pollen, a kernel on the ear 
will be missing. By looking closely at an ear of Indian 
corn, we can tell where the silk was attached to each 
kernel. (Fig. 54.) 

Other Examples of Imperfect Flowers. — The flowers 
of the melon, cucumber, scjuash and pumpkin are imper- 




FiG. 55. — Cucumber blossoms; A, pistillate; B, staminate. 

feet. By looking closely, w^e can easily see the tw^o kinds 
of flow^ers. Those that bear the pollen are like B, Figure 
55 ; while those that have the pistil are like A, Figure 55. 
Notice how many points of difference you can see in 
these tw'o flowers. In some ])lants, like the maple tree 
and the hop plant, all the flowers on one plant bear sta- 
mens only, and all the flowers on other plants bear pistils 
only. The plants that bear the staminate flowers of 
course never produce any seed. 



I04 IMPERFECT AND PERFECT FLOWERS 

Cross Fertilization — Wlien the pollen of one flower 
fertilizes the ovules of another flower, the action is called 
cross fertilicafion. This is one of the ways of producing 
many varieties of plants. Cross fertilization is often 
brought about by the wind or by insects, and sometimes 
by intention of the gardener. 

Plant Breeding. — By crossing certain plants with 
others of a similar kind, and carefully collecting the seeds 
that result, new and improved varieties are obtained. 
When an improved variety of any plant is obtained, the 
seeds from the plant are planted and selected so as to 
make a distinct breed. 

Great progress has been made at the Experiment Sta- 
tions in making valuable breeds of wheat, oats and corn. 
The yield in each case has been increased from three to 
ten bushels per acre. 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Imperfect flowers are those that lack either stamens or 
pistils. 

Some varieties of strawberry are perfect and some are 
imperfect. Strawberries having imperfect flowers must 
be planted near perfect varieties. 

Indian corn has imperfect flowers. The tassel fur- 
nishes the pollen, and the " silk " is a part of the pistils. 

Some plants, like the maple tree and the hop, grow on 
one plant flowers having nothing but pistils, and on 
another plant flowers having nothing but stamens. 

Varieties may be produced by cross fertilization, and, 
by careful breeding, plants may be greatly improved. 



24. CROPS AND WEEDS. 

Illustrative material: Samples of several of the most trouble- 
some weeds of the vicinity. Drill the pupils until they can name 
them at a glance. 

Weeds Not a Curse. — Weeds are plants that persist in 
attempting to grow where they are not wanted. It is 
Nature's plan to have the earth thickly covered with 
plants, ^\'hen men began to cultivate the soil, and to 
decide just what kinds of plants shouicl grow in some 
chosen place, they discovered weeds. Weeds should cer- 
tainly, however, be kept out of our crops as far as possible. 
But we must not think that they were sent as a curse to 
man, for it is better to have the ground covered with 
plants, though they be weeds, than to have it bare. 

Not Room for Both. — Figure 56 shows a plant of In- 
dian corn surrounded by weeds. The roots of the corn 
and of the weeds are feeding from the same soil, and 
their stems are reaching up for the same sunlight. Surely 
there will not be enough w'ater, food and sunlight for all, 
and so all will suffer unless some are taken out. If we 
hope to raise good corn, we must destroy the weeds. 
We learned in Lesson 1 1 that keeping the surface of the 
land covered with a layer of crumbled soil tends to pre- 
vent evaporation. Fortunately, the same treatment tends 
to prevent weeds from growing. The surface soil should, 
for this twofold reason, be kept well cultivated, especially 
in warm weather. 

105 



io6 



CROPS AND WEEDS 



Annuals. — Some weeds grow up, blossom, ripen their 
seeds, and perish, all in one season. These are called 
annual weeds. Weeds of this class are usually easy to 
destroy, for, if we pull them up or cut them off at the 
surface or a little below it, they do not often grow again. 
Many of the most common garden weeds belong to this 




Fig. 56. — Corn choked by weeds. 

class. Annual weeds usually seed more freely than other 
kinds. 

Biennials. — Weeds of another class grow in part one 
season and live through winter, to blossom, ripen their 
seed, and die, the next season. These are called biennial 
zveeds. The well-known "bull thistle," so common in 



CROPS AND WEEDS IO7 

old pastures, is of this class. These weeds are sometimes 
rather difficult to destroy the first season of their growth, 
for they are apt to grow up again after being cut off. 
If cut the second season, just before bloom, they soon die 
without yielding seed. 

Perennials. — Weeds of a third class continue to live 
and bear seed from year to year, unless they are destroyed. 
These are called perennial zveeds. Some weeds of this 
class, as the quack grass, sow thistle, and the wild morn- 
ing glory, multiply from buds on underground parts as 
well as by seeds. Perennial weeds are the hardest of all 
to destroy. We learned in Lesson 4 that the food that 
nourishes the roots of plants is formed in the leaves. If, 
therefore, we prevent the leaves from growing, the roots 
will soon starve. This is the surest way to kill perennial 
weeds, although it is often hard to carry out. 

Constant Warfare. — Most weeds spread chiefly from 
their seeds, hence care should be taken to prevent the 
formation of weed seeds. The more thorough we are in 
keeping the weeds out of our land, the easier the work 
becomes. While we may not hope to get rid of all weeds, 
we may greatly lessen their numbers by keeping up con- 
stant warfare against them. , 

WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 

Weeds are plants that persist in attempting to grow 
where they are not wanted. 

Weeds tend to rob plants of water, food and light. 

Annual weeds are those that live but one season. They 
are easily killed by being cut off or pulled up. 



I08 CROPS AND WEEDS 

Biennial weeds live two years. They are easily killed 
by being- cut just before they would bloom. 

Perennial weeds live on from year to year. Some of 
them multiply both from seeds and buds. They are the 
most difficult to destroy of all weeds. By preventing all 
leaf growth, we can starve the roots of all weeds. 

Most weeds spread chiefly from their seeds. 



25. MORE ABOUT WEEDS. 



The upper part of a plant of the Canada thistle is shown 
in Figure 57, i, also a portion of the underground stem 
with its rootlets (2). 
At 3, is shown a 
single flower, with its 
seed and downy 
hairs. The seed, also, 
is shown, in 4, nat- 
ural size, and, in 5, 
as it appears under 
a microscope. 

The root of the 
Canada thistle is per- 
ennial. It sends out 
underground stems 
o r rootstocks i n 
every direction. It 
is because of this fact 
that it spreads so 
rapidly and is so dif- 
ficult to get rid of. 
These underground 
stems develop buds at their joints, which grow upward, 
forming new plants. Thus a single plant, if left alone 

for two or three years, may. by means of its rootstocks 

109 




Fig. 57. — Canada thistle. 



no MORE ABOUT WEEDS 

alone, spread over a square rod or more of ground. It 
may spread, also, by its seeds, but this is not so likely, as 
most of the seeds will not germinate. 

The following are the best methods for the destruction 
of the Canada thistle : 

(i) After manuring the soil, plant it thickly with 
clover. When the thistles are in bloom, mow the clover, 
cutting down every thistle. When the clover is again 
up high enough to cut, plow it under carefully, harrow 
and roll. Keep the field well cultivated till late in the 
fall. Plant grain or grass the next spring. 

(2) Pour oil of vitriol on the stump left in the 
ground after cutting off the thistle as close as possible. 

(3) Apply salt liberally to each stump. Turn in 
sheep or goats. They will usually eat the thistles close 
to the ground, and prevent their growth. 

(4) Seed liberally with any grass that will grow well 
on the ground. The thistles may be choked out by this 
method. 

The Burdock (called, also: Great lappa, Gobo, Lappa 
officinalis, L. major, L. edulis, etc.), Arctium Lappa. — 
This coarse, mammoth, offensive weed, with its large 
brown burs that stick to the clothing and to the coats of 
animals, is familiar to all. 

In Figure 58 is shown an illustration of a portion of 
the stems of two varieties of this plant in flower. At i, 
is a branch of the small variety (Minor), and, at 3, one 
of the more common varieties (Major). At 2, a single 
flower is shown magnified. A shows magnified views of 
the seed, and B shows the seed natural size. 

Though not very troublesome in cultivated ground. 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



III 



the burdock pushes itself into ahnost every waste 
place where the ground is rich and where the neg- 
lect of the owner per- 
mits it to exist. Its 
injury to crops is far 
less than that of the^^ 
Canada thistle, but it 
should not be allowed 
to grow, as it is most 
unsightly and offensive, 
and its clinging burs, 
besides being a source 
of annoyance to man, 
are often a damage to 
domestic animals. 

Being a biennial 
plant, the burdock is 
not difficult to destroy. 
It dies, if left to itself, 
at the end of the second Fig. 58.— Burdock, 

season. The important thing is to prevent its seeding, 
and thus keep it from spreading. During the first year 
of growth, the plant is easily destroyed by being pulled 
up by the roots when the ground is very wet. Repeated 
cutting a short distance below the surface of the ground 
may be required the second season. But, whatever 
method be adopted, the plant should never be permitted 
to bloom. 

The White or Ox-Eye Daisy (called, also: Daisy, 
White weed, Leucanthemum vulgare), Chrysanthemum 
Leiicanthcnmm. — It seems a pity that we are compelled 




112 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



to condemn this beautiful plant as a harmful weed, but 
such is the case. Where it is allowed to grow, it often 
fills pastures and meadow lands to so great an extent as 
to crowd out more useful plants, and thus becomes a 
source of damage. 

The ox-eye daisy has sometimes been cultivated in the 
flower garden. It is a near relative to the garden chrys- 
anthemum. It is sel- 
dom troublesome, ex- 
cept in meadows or 
pasture lands, and 
grows best in rather 
poor soils. It is a 
perennial plant, and 
grows from an un- 
derground stem, as 
well as from the 
seed. 

It is hardly possi- 
ble to destroy the 
ox-eye daisy from 
grass land in which 
it has secured a hold, 
without breaking up 
the sod and summer- 
fallowing the ground 
or devoting it for a time to some hoed crop. Cutting 
the stems before the flowers open will prevent the seed- 
ing, but does not destroy the plant nor stop the spreading 
of its rootstocks. 

Snap Dragon or Toadflax (called, also: Butter and 




Fig. 59. — Ox-eye daisy; i stamen, magnified; 
2, pistil, magnified; 3, seeds; 4, seed, mag- 
nified. 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



113 



eggs, Ransted), Linaria vulgaris. — The snap dragon or 
toadflax was brought to this country as a garden flower, 
but it is becoming quite dangerous. It is perennial, and 
is spread both by its seeds and its creeping rootstocks. 
It tends to form a large patch, and, so far as it extends, 
forces out all other plants. 

A plant with its head of flowers is shown in Figure 60. 
I shows a single flow- 
er; 2 shows an enlarged 
vertical section of the 
same ; and 3, a ma- 
tured seed pod. 

For small areas, it is 
possible to destroy the 
snap dragon by grub- 
bing out the roots, but, 
where the patches are 
numerous and large, 
the summer fallow is 
the only treatment that 
is likely to be success- 
ful. Young plants may 
be rooted out by hand 
at a time when the 
ground is very wet. ^'^^- ^°-— ^"^p dragon. 

Cocklebur or Clotbur, Xanthium striunarium. — The 
cocklebur is a rapidly growing, coarse weed, with an ir- 
regularly branching stem, that grows to the height of from 
one to two feet. There are two kinds of flowers grown 
in separate heads or clusters on the same plant. The 
staminate flowers are produced in roundish heads at the 

G. & M. Ag. 8 




114 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



top of the stem. The pistihate flowers are in clus- 
ters of two or three at the base of the male stalk. 

These enlarge and 
form thick, hard, ob- 
long burs, beset with 
stiff hooked prickles, 
and bearing two strong 
beaks at the upper end. 
These burs, like those 
of the burdock, stick to 
clothing and to the 
coats of animals. The 
upper portion of a plant 
of cocklebur is shown 
At the 




Fig. 6 1 



in Figure 6i 



top of the stem, the heads of staminate flowers are seen, 
and, at the base of the leaves, heads of the pistillate flow- 
ers. At the right, near the top of the figure, is a staminate 
flower enlarged. A shows a bur, and B, a section of the 
same, showing the two embryos. Both A and B are 
about natural size. Each bur, when ripe, incloses two 
seeds, one of which may germinate the first year, and the 
other lie dormant until a later time. 

It has been said that the plant is poisonous to cattle, 
but this is probably a mistake. 

The cocklebur is common in barnyards, along roadsides, 
in waste places, and cultivated grounds. 

As the root of the cocklebur is not creeping, and does 
not live in the ground through winter, clean culture with 
some hoed crop, or seeding to clover or meadow grass, 
with frequent mowing, will keep it under control. It 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



115 



should be carefully prevented from seeding, not only in 
cultivated grounds, but in waste places as well, and this 
is the only means by which it may be prevented from 
becoming troublesome. It is often necessary to go 
through corn and stubble fields in August or September 
for this purpose. 

The Sow Thistle (called, also: Field sow thistle, Per- 
ennial sow thistle), Sonchus arvensis. — This plant is al- 
most as bad as the 
Canada thistle. 
Indeed, some 
farmers who have 
contended w i t h 
both of these ene- 
mies have pro- 
nounced the sow 
thistle the more 
unmanageable of 
the two. 

The plant of the 
sow thistle is soft- 
er and less rigid 
than that of either 
the Canada thistle 
or the bull thistle. 
The leaves are 
thinner and 
smoother, and, 
while having 
prickles on their borders, are so soft and flabby that they 
may be easily handled. The stem, which is free from 




Fig. 62. — Sow thistle in bloom. 



ii6 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



prickles, grows from one foot to two feet in height, is 
hollow, and gives out a milky juice when cut. The flow- 
ers, which are produced in large heads at the top of the 
stem, are bright yellow. The plant is perennial, and, like 
the Canada thistle, grows from underground buds, as 
well as by seed. In Figure 62, is shown a specimen of 
the perennial sow thistle. Young plants of the sow 
thistle, as they appear on the surface of the ground in 
spring or autumn, are illustrated in Figure 63. 




Fig. 63. — Young sow thistles. 

Sour Dock (called, also: Yellow dock. Curled dock, 
Narrow dock, Curled rumex), Ruiucx crispus. — Like 
the burdock, this plant is a coarse and homely intruder 
into waste lands. Its roots are believed by some to be 
valuable for use in medicine and its young leaves make 
excellent greens ; but the ground it occupies is .far prefer- 
able to its company, and it should be persistently hunted 
out and destroyed. 

The sour dock is a rank, coarse, deep-rooting perennial 
weed. The rather slender branching stem grows to three 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



117 



or four feet in height, and ends in a long, somewhat 
plumeHke, compound flower stalk of greenish leaves. 
These are followed by numerous angular brown 
seeds, shaped some- 
what like kernels of 
buck w heat. The 
rather long and nar- 
row, sharp-pointed 
leaves have distinct 
vein markings, and 
are strongly wavy- 
curled on the bor- 
ders. They are borne 
on rather long leaf 
stalks, and, where 
each one of these 
clasps the stem, a 
branch starts out. 
The plant has a long, 
spindle-shaped, yel- 
low taproot. A spec- 
imen is shown in 
Figure 64. 

Perhaps the best 
method of destroy- 
ing the yellow dock 
is to root it out by hand at times when the soil is very 
wet. By clasping the stem just at the surface of the 
ground and giving it a slight twist and a strong quick 
pull at the same time, the root will usually come out al- 
most entire. The more common method of cutting off 




Fig. 64. — Yellow dock; a, seed, magnified. 



ii8 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



the stem with the scythe or hoe does not destroy the root. 
Wild Mustard ( called, also : Charlock, English char- 
lock, Kerlock, Kellock, Sinapis arvensis), Brassica Sin- 

apistrum. — The wild 
mustard is a coarse, 
rough, annual plant, 
much like the garden 
radish, except that it 
has a more irregular 
and branching root. 
The stem and branches 
end in clusters of yel- 
low flowers, of which 
the lower ones are first 
to open. The stem con- 
t i n u e s to lengthen, 
forming a long, leafless 




flower stalk, 
knotted buds 



with 
toward 



Fig. 65.— The wild mustard. An individ- the baSC, OpCU floWCrS 
ual flower and a seed-pod appear at the 

left and at the lower left-hand corner tOWard the SUmmit, and 
IS shown a flower. 

a cluster of unopened 
flowers at the top. The seeds resemble those of the cab- 
bage, and have a harsh, biting taste. A portion of a 
plant of the wild mustard is shown in Figure 65. 

The best way to get rid of the wild mustard is to go 
through grain fields and other places where it grows, and 
pull out the plants while they are in bloom, and hence 
easily seen. Not one should be permitted to remain. 
The labor this makes necessary is not so great as one who 
has not tried it might think. No grain should be sown 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



119 



which contains the seeds of wild mustard, when this can 
be helped. 

The Wild Parsnip, Fastinaca sativa. — The wild pars- 
nip is the wild form of the common garden parsnip, and is 
hence readily known. The illustra- 
tion, Figure 66, is from a plant taken 
from a meadow, and of which the 
root leaves had perished. 

The plant is biennial, forming its 
root leaves the first season and its 
flower stalk the second. Perhaps the 
best method of destroying the young 
plants is by pulling them out at a time 
when the soil is filled with water and 
the roots may be drawn out nearly 
entire. Cutting off the young plants 
with the hoe tends rather to increase 
than to kill them. Cutting the flower 
stalks of the second year plants be- 
fore the seeds are old enough to 
become ripe will prevent spreading 
by the seeds, and, as the parent plant 
has run its course, it will soon perish. 

The Russian Thistle (called, also : 
Russian cactus. Saltwort, Tartar 
weed. Hector weed), Salsola kali, 
variety tragus. — The Russian thistle 
is an annual plant, coming each 
year from the seed. It grows from a single, small, 
light-colored root less than half an inch through and 
from six to twelve inches in length, to the height of 




Fig. 66. — Wild parsnip. 



I20 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



from six inches to three feet, branching profusely, and, 
when not crowded, often forms a dense, brushUke plant 
from two to six feet in width, and from one half to two 
thirds as high. When young, it is a very harmless look- 
ing plant, tender and juicy throughout, with small, nar- 
row, downy, green leaves. When the dry weather comes 
in August, the tender, downy leaves wither and fall, 
and the plant increases rapidly in size, sending out hard, 




Fig. 67. — Russian thistle. The above plant was fully three feet in diameter. 

stiff branches. Instead of leaves, these branches bear 
at intervals of half an inch or less, three sharp spines, 
which harden, but do not grow dull, as the plant increases 
in size and ugliness. The spines are from a quarter to 
a half inch in length. At the base of each cluster of 
spines, is a papery flower about one eighth of an inch in 
width. If this be taken out and carefully pulled to pieces, 
a small, pulpy, green body, coiled up and appearing like a 
tiny green snail shell, will be found. This is the seed. 
As the seed ripens, it becomes hard and of a rather dull- 
gray color. At the earliest frost, the plants change in 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



121 



color from dark green to crimson, especially on the most 
exposed parts. When the ground becomes frozen and the 
November winds blow across the prairie, the small root is 
broken or loosened and pulled out. The dense, yet light, 
growth, and the circu- 
lar or hemispherical 
form of the plant, fit it 
most perfectly to be 
carried by the wind. It 
goes rolling across the 
country at racing speed, 
scattering seeds at ev- 
ery bound. 

The best method of 
destroying Russian 
thistles is by plowing in 
August or September, 
before they have grown 
large and stiff, and be- 
fore they have gone to 
seed, using care that all 
seeds are well turned 
under. If the season 
be long and weeds come 
through the furrow, it 
may be necessary to fig. 68. 
harrow the land before 
winter. Burn over the 
stubble fields as soon as possible after harvest. Cut the 
stubble with the mowing machine if the fire does not 
burn everything clean. Cutting the stubble and thistles 




Branch from Russian thistle, 
showing appearance of plant when seeds 
are mature; a, from a young plant, show- 
ing the appearance before the dry season; 
b, mature seed. 



122 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



before the latter have gone to seed will help, but burning 
is essential to complete success, as, otherwise, the thistles 
will send out seed-bearing branches below the places 
where the mowing machine cuts them. 

Corn, potatoes, 
beets, or any other cul- 
tivated crop, zvcll ta- 
ken care of, will, in 
two years, rid the land, 
not only of Russian 
thistles, but, also, of 
nearly all other weeds. 
Sheep are very fond 
of the Russian thistle 
until it becomes too 
coarse and woody. 
The young plants 
may, therefore, be 
kept down by pastur- 
ing sheep on them, 
and the only valuable 
quality these trouble- 

FiG. 69.— Branch of Russian thistle, showing SOUIC plautS have may 

appearance before flowering and before the • ,1 • 1 .-i 

spiny branchlets have elongated; a, spines; HI tniS maUUCr DC Utll- 

b, young grain with the covering removed; . 

c, blossom removed from the axil and IZCd. 
viewed from below; d, section of fruiting 

calyx, side view; e, same, seen from above. Jf the RuSsiaU 

thistle is to be kept out of the cultivated fields, it 
must be got rid of along roadsides, railroad grades, 
waste land where the sod has been broken, and, in fact, 
in all places where it may, by chance, have obtained a 
foothold. 




MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



123 



Quack Grass (called, also: Couch grass, Quitch grass. 
Quick grass. Wheat grass, Dog grass, Tommy grass, 
Triticum r e p e n s) , 
Agropyrum re pens. 
— Quack grass has 
some excellent quali- 
ties as a fodder plant. 
It is said to surpass 
timothy in nutritive 
value, but, when it 
takes possession of 
the soil, nothing else 
can be grown. It 
puts out strong un- 
derground stems, 
which root and send 
up new stems at their 
joints. These under- 
ground stems often 
show their power by 
growing through po- 
tatoes or bits of 
wood that chance to 
lie in their path. 
They form a stiff sod 
that often severely 
tries the muscles of 

the plowman's team. Branches do not usually come from 
every joint, but if the stems are broken or cut in pieces, 
as with a plow, hoe or harrow, each piece sends up a stem 
and leaves from any joint it may have, and becomes a 




Fig. 70. — Quack grass. 



124 MORE ABOUT WEEDS 

distinct plant. A large amount of nourishment is stored 
up in the underground stems, which makes them very 
nutritive and furnishes food for growth. The new plants 
formed by cutting up the old ones grow with great vigor, 
and so form many weeds in the place of one. The under- 
ground portions are eaten by stock when they can get at 
them. Horses and cows are fond of them; hogs root 
industriously for them and help to destroy them. 

The illustration of quack grass shown in Figure 70 
makes further description unnecessary. 

The summer fallow is probably the most satisfactory 
method of destroying quack grass on any large scale. 
Turn the sod under in spring and plow again as often as 
any amount of grass appears above ground, until Septem- 
ber, when rye or wheat may be sown if desired. It is 
best to remove fences or other obstructions to the plow, 
that make a harboring place for the underground 
stems. 

Small patches may be destroyed by covering the ground 
deeply with straw or other litter, or by devoting the 
ground to some crop that requires clean culture, as cab- 
bage, cauliflower or celery, provided the required clean 
culture be faithfully given. Patches of quack grass 
should never be cross plowed or cross cultivated in tilling 
the field that contains them, as this is one of the surest 
means of spreading the underground stems to new loca- 
tions. 

The Wild Carrot, Daiicus carota. — The wild carrot is 
one of the most troublesome weeds in the eastern states, 
and is rapidly spreading westward. It thrives in nearly 
all soils and is spread rapidly by its many seeds. It re- 



MORIi ABOL^T WEEDS 



125 



sembles the garden carrot so closely that it is easily 
known. 

Figure 71 shows the wild carrot plant with the seed 
magnified at c, and 
natural size at d. 

Mowing the plants 
as often as the flower- 
stalks appear will de- 
stroy them, and will 
also prevent their seed- 
ing. The first mow- 
ing often seems to in- 
crease the number of 
plants, but, as the root 
is biennial, it can not 
live long. Pulling the 
plants by hand, while 
the ground is wet, is 
one of the surest 
methods of destruc- 
tion. Sheep aid in 
keeping them in sub- 
jection. The plant 
can not endure 
thorough cultivation 
and hence is rarely very troublesome in well tilled land. 

Bindweed (called also: Morning glory (incorrectly), 
Field bindweed,) Convolvulus arvensis. — This is a twin- 
ing or creeping plant with a perennial root and an annual 
stem. 

The white, or reddish-tinted, funnel-shaped flowers 




Fig. 71. — Wild carrot; a, plant in bloorn; 
b, leaf; c, seed, magnified; d, seed nat- 
ural size. 



126 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



are about an inch long and open mostly in the morning, 
like those of the morning glory, with which this plant 

is often confused. The 
plant is a rapid grower 
and spreads chiefly by 
means of its fleshy un- 
derground stems like 
the Canada thistle. 
The wonderful power 
of the plant to increase 
is shown by Figure 72. 
This illustration clear- 
ly shows that the un- 
derground stems put 
forth strong buds 
from which shoots 
grow upward to the 
surface, and that some 
of the main under- 
ground stems extend 
horizontally several 
inches below the plow 
line, which fact easily explains the failure of the plow 
to destroy this plant. 

The bindweed is a most troublesome weed where it once 
gets a start. It does not spread rapidly when left to 
itself, but it is extremely difficult to destroy, and small 
patches of it in cultivated ground are liable to be widely 
scattered by the cultivating tools. Perhaps the best treat- 
ment for small patches is to cover the ground a foot or 




Fig. T2. — Bindweed, showing underground 
stems at A A. (Reduced.) 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



127 



more deep with straw, marsh liay or other litter, leaving 
it on until it decays. 

Prickly Lettuce (called, also: Wild lettuce. Milk this- 
tle, English thistle, Compass plant), Lactuca Scariola. — 
This' plant is occupying 
waste grounds in many 
parts of the country. It 
is an annual, and in- 
creases only by seed, but 
it seeds very freely and 
the young plants are 
so strong that it spreads 
very rapidly where per- 
mitted to do so. It has 
often been mistaken for 
the sow thistle and some- 
times for the Russian 
thistle. 

The prickly lettuce is 
closely related to the 
common garden lettuce, 
which it resembles in the 
seed-bearing stage. The 
stem is smooth, with the 
exception of a few scat- 
tered prickles. The 
plant begins to bloom in July, and produces a few blos- 
soms each morning after that time until killed by frost. 
An average plant has been estimated to bear more than 
8,000 seeds. 




Fig. 73. — Prickly lettuce; a, plant in 
bloom; b, leaf; c, seed, magnified. 



128 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 



Repeatedly mowing the plants as they come into bloom, 
or earlier, will subdue them. Thorough cultivation with 
a hoed crop, by means of which the seed in the soil may 
be made to germinate, will be found very successful. The 
first plowing should be shallow, so as not to bury the seeds 
too deep. The mature seed-bearing plants should never 
be plowed under, as that would plant the seeds at differ- 
ent depths. Mature plants should be mowed and burned 
before plowing. The seed appears in clover, millet, and 
the heavier grass seeds, and the plant is very often started 
by this means. As the seed may be carried a long dis- 
tance by the wind, the plants must be cleared out of fence 
rows, waste land, and roadsides. 

Long Leaved Plantain (called, also: Rib grass, Ripple 
grass, English plantain, Buckhorn plantain), Plantago 

lanceolata. — This plant 
is much like the com- 
mon plantain, fro m 
which it differs in its 
much longer and nar- 
rower slightly hairy 
leaves, and its shorter 
and thicker seed spikes. 
It is perennial, and is 
apt to be very abundant 
in upland meadows, 
clover fields, and poor- 
ly kept lawns. It is 
especially to be dreaded in red-clover fields, intended to be 
cut for seed, since the seeds mature with those of the 




Fig. 74. — Long-leaved plantain. 



MORE ABOUT WEEDS 1 29 

clover and are of so nearly the same size and weight with 
them that the two can not be easily separated. 

The plants can be destroyed by cutting their roots off 
several inches below the surface of the ground and pulling 
off the parts cut off. They can not bear good cultivation 
and on rich soils they can probably be smothered out by 
a close June sod. 

NOTE. 

A large number of very common weeds have been omitted. 
Only those giving special difficulty to the farmer have been 
described. Pupils should make a study of all the weeds to be 
found in the neighborhood. Send to the Experiment Station in 
your state for a bulletin on the subject of weeds and how to 
destroy them, or send to Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C, for Farmers' Bulletin No. 28. 

G. & M. Ag. 9 



26. THE GARDEN. 



Suggestions for Work. — Every boy and girl living on 
a farm should have a garden. A great deal of pleasure, 
as well as some profit, may be obtained from planning 
and caring for a garden. 

In the early spring, have a small plat of land set aside 
as your garden, to do with as you please. Send for 




Fig. 75. — " See that the weeds are kept out." 

seed catalogues, and study out just what will be best 
to plant in the garden. When you have done this, pre- 
pare the ground well for the seed, and, after the plants 

130 



THE GARDEN 



T3I 



have come up, watch their growth from day to day. 
See that the weeds are kept out and that the plants are 
cultivated as they need it. Make a success of your small 
farm by attention to it. It may be that you can sell 
something from your garden, and thus make some money 
for yourself. In any event, you will have the pleasure 
of doing something useful. 

THE STRAWBERRY (PI. I.). 

The Strawberry is a good fruit for boys and girls to 
cultivate. The plants are easily taken care of, and may 
bear a full crop of fruit the next season after planting. 




Fig. 76. — Strawberry blossoms. 

The plants multiply during summer from trailing run- 
ners. One plant set out in spring will often form thirty 
or forty young plants by autumn. These will nearly all 
bear fruit the following summer. 

There are many varieties of strawberries, and not all 
succeed equally well in every garden. Before deciding 
what variety to plant, inquiry should be made of neigh- 
bors to find what variety succeeds best in the vicinity. 

Perfect and Imperfect Flowers. — There is a lesson to 
be learned about the flowers of the strawberry. The 



132 THE GARDEN 

flowers of some varieties are not perfect, and will not bear 
fruit unless a variety having perfect flowers is planted 
in the same plat with them. Figure 76, b, shows an 
imperfect strawberry flower, and Figure 76, a, a perfect 
one. Figure 76, c, has a few stamens, but is not well 
supplied. The little organs marked S (Fig. 53, A) are 
the stamens, which give out the pollen. Some of this 
pollen must come upon the pistils, P, or a fruit will not 
be produced. (Lessons 22 and 23.) If plants of a per- 
fect-flowered variety are growing within five or six feet of 
those of an imperfect-flowered sort, the bees will carry 
the pollen to the latter plants, and they will bear fruit as 
well as if they had pollen of their own. Some of the 
most beautiful varieties of strawberries have imperfect 
flowers. 

Care and Planting. — The best strawberries commonly 
grow on plants that were formed the season before, hence 
only these should be set. The plants are generally set 
out in the spring, about two feet apart, in rows three 
and one-half or four feet apart. A plat of plants cov- 
ering five or six square rods should furnish strawberries 
enough for an average family. The soil should be fer- 
tile and free from perennial weeds. By autumn, the 
plants should have multiplied to such an extent that each 
row forms a bed of plants about two feet wide. Of 
course, all weeds should be kept out of this bed. The 
cultivator should be freely used between the rows to 
keep the soil well crumbled and to keep the plants in the 
different rows apart. In climates where the ground 
freezes much in winter, it is best to cover the strawberry 
bed an. inch deep with clean straw or leaves just before 



THE GARDEN 1 33 

freezing weather. This keeps the ground from freezing 
and thawing often during the winter, and so tends to 
protect the roots from damage. In spring, the covering 
should be raked off and the ground between the rows 
well cultivated. Just before the fruit ripens, the ground 
between the rows should be mulched with straw or grass, 
to keep the fruit from being spattered with dirt by the 
rain. 

After the strawberry harvest is past, if the bed is to 
be kept for another crop, it is well to mow off the plants 
close to the ground with a scythe or mowing machine. 
The cut-off material may then be dried in the sun, and, 
with the mulching that remains between the rows, raked 
from the bed and burned. This will destroy some harm- 
ful insects and diseases. The wide rows may then be 
narrowed down to about six inches in width. This may 
be done by cutting all the plants off just beneath the sur- 
face of the ground with a sharp spade, except in a strip 
six inches wide through the center of the row. The 
ground between the rows should then be enriched by 
spreading decayed manure over it, and should be well 
cultivated. If the weather be dry, the plat should, if 
possible, be well w^atered. New plants will then be 
formed on both sides of this narrow row, and, by fall, 
the rows will be as wide as they were in the spring, and 
most of the plants will be young. 

Some gardeners plow up the strawberry bed after the 
first crop of berries has been picked. Others treat it as 
above directed, and pick a second crop the following year. 
Still others keep the bed until the third crop has been 
picked. If the bed is kept free from weeds, and is well 



134 



THE GARDEN 



manured each year, the third crop may be as large as the 
fii«st. 




THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY. 

Planting and Care. — The raspberry and blackberry 
are delicious fruits. The bushes generally bear prickles, 

and the stems die down to the 
base each year after fruiting. 
They are hardy except where 
winters are very cold. They 
multiply by suckers that grow 
from the roots, or by the ends 
of the branches taking root in 
the ground. The young plants 
are usually set about four feet 
apart in rows seven or eight 

Fig. 77.- Eldorado blackberry. fg^^ apart. They bcgiu tO 

bear fruit the second year after planting. The ground 
between the plants should be cultivated or mulched. The 
dead stems that have borne fruit should be cut off and 
taken out in the fall or early spring, and the young 
shoots that grow from the base in spring will need thin- 
ning out after the second year. Only four or five for 
each plant should be allowed to grow. Where winters 
are very cold, the stems should be bent down and cov- 
ered with earth late in autumn. To avoid breaking the 
stems, a little earth is removed from near their base, so 
that the strain of bending comes mostly on the roots. 

The raspberry and blackberry are not much troubled 
by insects. 



THE GARDEN I35 

Marketing. — The strawberry, raspberry and black- 
berry are kirgely grown for market in some localities. 
They generally prove profitable where the business is well 
managed. To be most successful, they should be grown 
in a location where labor and manure may be had 
cheap, and where they may be sent to market without 
having to be carried far by wagon. They are commonly 
sold in quart or pint boxes, which are packed in cases or 
crates. The picked berries should be removed promptly 
to a cool, shady place, and should always be handled with 
care to avoid bruising them. The yield of berries per 
acre is usually larger than that of grain. 

The raspberry, in some places, is dried in large quan- 
tities, and the dried fruit brings a good price in market. 

THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY (PI. I.). 

Planting and Care. — The currant and gooseberry are 
less popular fruits than the strawberry, but they are 
easily grown, and at least a few bushes should be found 
in every garden. The bushes may be planted from four 
to six feet apart each way. They are very hardy and 
fruitful. They are multiplied by planting cuttings of the 
stem in moist soil, or by covering the stems with earth. 
As the bushes become old, the oldest stems may be cut 
off. 

A troublesome insect, called the currant worm, gener- 
ally appears on the leaves rather early in spring. If this 
is not destroyed, it will consume most of the leaves and 
the fruit will not grow well. It appears first on the lower 
and more central leaves of the bushes. To destroy the 
currant worm, sprinkle the leaves with water that has 



136 THE ORCHARD 

powder of white hellebore stirred in it. This powder 
may be bought at drug stores. A tablespoon ful should 
be well stirred into about three gallons of water. The 
mixture may be put on the bushes with a sprinkling pot. 
Currants are mostly used for making jelly, for which 
they are much prized. There are red, white and black 
varieties. Gooseberries are used when green for sauce 
and for canning. Only the native American varieties 
are satisfactory in the United States. 



27. THE ORCHARD. 

Every farmer should have an orchard. Fruit trees of 
some kinds will grow wherever farm crops will grow. 
Good fruit not only is pleasing to the taste, but is very 
healthful as food. 

Orchard trees are grown by planting the seeds or the 
pits of fruit. They need to be grafted or budded to 
make them bear fruit of a particular variety. 

Planting. — Fruit trees rarely grow and bear fruit well 
unless they receive good care. They should be planted 
far enough apart so that the tops will not shade each 
other, and so that the roots will have sufficient room to 
procure the water they need. They should be pruned 
sufficiently so that the branches will not rub against each 
other much, and so that the sun can shine in upon the 
growing fruit. The ground should be manured to such an 
extent that the trees may have all the fertility they need for 
continuous fruit bearing. The soil should be cultivated 
during the first half of the season while the trees are 
growing. About midsummer, it is well to sow some 
quick-growing crop, as oats, peas, clover, or vetches, to 
furnish a cover for the ground during winter. This 
tends to prevent washing, deep freezing and thawing of 
the ground, and to save fertility. 

Insect Pests. — Orchard trees need more or less pro- 
tection against harmful insects and fungi. There are 

i37 



138 



THE ORCHARD 




various ways of giving this protection, and some special 
knowledge is needed for each kind of fruit. Much of 

this protection is given by spray- 
ing the trees. This means spraying 
them with water containing some 
substance that destroys the harmful 
insects or fungi without injuring 
the fruit. This is done with a force 
pump and hose. The hose is fitted 
with a nozzle that divides the stream 
into very fine spray. 

Other means of protection are 
necessary in some cases. Borers 
often injure the trunks of trees. 
These must be destroyed or kept 
out by special treatments. Insects are sometimes en- 
trapped by placing bands about the trunks of the trees. 
Fruits containing insects 
are often destroyed or 
are fed to stock, to keep 
the insects from multi- 
plying. 

The successful fruit 
grower will need to 
study much, and to 
watch carefully to guard 



Fig. 78.— The Flat- 
headed borer; a, the 
larva; b, the pupa; d, 
the perfect beetle. 



against insects and dis- 
ease. 

THE APPLE. 




Fig 79 — \ worni\ apr)lL, showing the fa- 
miliar mass of brown iiarticlcs thrown out 
at the blossom-end by tlic young worm. 



The Apple is the most important American fruit. It 
may be had in its fresh state the whole year through. 



THE ORCHARD 



139 





Fig. So. — Section of wormy apple; a, codling moth; b, cocoon. 

The tree is one of the largest and longest-lived of fruit 
trees. It begins bearing when from three to eight years 
of age, and sometimes lives nearly or 
quite a century. It is grown with 
more or less success throughout the 
United States and Southern Canada. 
The trees are commonly planted 
when about three years old, and 
should not be set less than twenty- 
five feet apart both ways. They 
should be pruned somewhat each 
year to prevent the branches from 
growing too thickly. 

The Codling Moth — The apple 
is much injured by an insect called 
the " codling moth," of which the 
maggot form lives in the fruit, cans- ^1°- ^'-^^l'/^ '^°°^' 




140 



THE ORCHARD 



ing " wormy apples," It is estimated that this worm has 
caused over $7,000,000 damage each year in the states of 
Nebraska, Ilhnois and New York alone. The codling 
moth can be controlled pretty well by spraying the trees 
soon after the flowering period with water containing 
Paris green stirred in it, at the rate of one pound to two 
hundred gallons. 

The woodpecker finds the worm hidden in his silken 
cocoon under the scales of the bark of the apple tree. 
This bird should not be killed. He is doing a good work 
in destroying the worms that would otherwise spoil many 
apples. 

THE PLUM AND CHERRY. 

The Plum and Cherry are favorite fruits which can be 
grown over much of the United States and parts of 
Canada. They grow on small trees that begin to bear 
when they are three or four years old. The trees 

are planted in the orchard 
when they are about two 
years old, and are set about 
sixteen feet apart each 
way. 

The Curculio — An insect 
called the curculio troubles 
the fruit by laying an egg in 

Fio. 8..- The plun, tree curculio; ^^- The tgg hatchcS iutO a 

beedeVT^'curcuifc^Z; yoJng maggot that lives ou the 

plum. The straight lines indicate /- . .,,.,- •, . 

the average natural length. irUlt UUtll full grOWU. it IS 

usually this maggot that causes plums to drop before 
they are ripe, and that causes "wormy" cherries. The 




THE ORCHARD I4I 

curctilio may be caught by jarring it off the trees early 
in the morning on a sheet spread on the ground. The 
, insect is then stiff from the cold and so does not fly. 

THE PEACH. 

The Peach is one of the most delicious of all fruits. 
It grows on a tree about as large as a plum tree. The 
peach tree begins to bear fruit when three or four years 
of age. The peach is not so hardy as the plum or cherry, 
and it succeeds well only in certain parts of the country ; 
but a few trees may be planted in the orchard wherever 
the winter is not too cold for it, and they will often bear 
fruit enough for the family. The fruit of the peach is 
mostly borne on the shoots that grew the season before, 
hence it should be pruned to make plenty of young wood. 

Yellows. — The peach is subject to a disease called 
" yellows," that has entirely destroyed many whole or- 
chards of this tree. No remedy is known for it but to 
dig out and burn the affected trees. 

THE GRAPE. 

The Grape is a fine fruit, that is successfully grown 
over nearly all of the United States. Every home should 
have at least a few grape vines. They require little 
room, as they can be trained upon a fence or the wall of 
a building, if need be. Their fruit, which ripens in au- 
tumn, is wholesome and delicious. A plat of ground 
planted with grapes is called a vineyard. Vines in the 
vineyard are planted from seven to ten feet apart both 
ways. Grape vines bear fruit when three or four years 



142 THE ORCHARD 

old. The grape is commonly multiplied from cuttings of 
the stem. 

Pruning and Cultivating. — The grape vine is a rapid 
grower, and therefore needs to be severely pruned to 
keep it within bounds. The best fruit is borne on the 
shoots that grow from the part of the vine that grew 
the year before. In pruning the vine, we should leave 
on some of the wood that grew the last season, but should 
cut off most of the older wood. The grape vine is com- 
monly tied to a trellis made of wire or slats. Some- 
times it is permitted to climb over an arbor or summer 
house without much pruning, but it is only with careful 
pruning that the best grapes can be grown. 

The ground between the rows of grapes should be 
well cultivated during the summer to keep down weeds. 

In countries having cold winters, grape vines should 
be protected in winter as described in the section on the 
raspberry and blackberry in lesson 26. 



28. ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS. 



Natural Destroyers. — We might greatly reduce the 
number of insects and worms that destroy our crops, by 
taking care not to destroy the animals that feed upon 
them. We have been so 
careless in destroying in- 
sects, toads, and birds that 
live upon the insects 
which do us harm, that 
these insects have greatly 
increased in number and 
have become pests. If all 
would study to preserve 
the friends and to destroy 
the enemies of our crops, 
we should be rid of the de- 
structive insects in a short 
time. 

Insects.' — The Ichneu- 




FiG. 83. — Ichneumon fly. 

mon Flv is one of the most beautiful, as well as val- 

As will be noticed from the picture, 

It is doinsf no 



uable, of insects. 



it is boring into the trunk of a tree 



' There is a popular notion that all small animals, such as flies, spiders, and 
the coral animals in the sea, are insects. This is a mistake, as neither the 
spiders nor the coral polyps belong to the insect class. The word insect is 
applied properly to those animals which have bodies divided into three distinct 
sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. From the head there springs 
a pair of feelers called nntenn.ne, and from the thorax six legs grow. The 
wasp is a good illustration of an insect. The spider has but two distinct parts, 
and comes under another class. 

143 



144 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



harm, however. It is seeking to deposit its eggs in the 
larvae of an insect that has bored deeply into the trunk of 
the tree. The eggs of the ichneumon fly hatch out and 
live on these larvae, causing the death of the borer. Ich- 







Fig. 84. — Garden spider. 

neumon flies are in search of the larvae of moths, butter- 
flies, etc., in which to deposit their eggs. As the ichneu- 







FiG. 85. — Lady-bird beetles, or " lady bugs." The straight lines represent the 
average natural length. These beetles are very destructive to plant lice. 

mon fly hatches and becomes a fly in about fifteen days, 
it will destroy any larvae in which it is deposited.^ 



^ All insects begin life as a tiny egg. This may be laid under the bark of a 
tree, in the fruit, on the water, or in the dirt. After a time the egg begins to 
hatch. It usually produces a little worm-like creature, called a larva. This is 
sometimes called the grub or the caterpillar stage. The larva may have 
numerous feet and two strong jaws. It is very hungry, eats a great deal and 
grows rapidly. After a few days, it is fully grown, and may change into the 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



145 




Fig. 86. — Dragon fly. 

Lady Bugs are small beetles, with bright-colored, scaly 
wings. They feed on plant lice scales and the eggs and 
larvae of other insects. They 
are among the most valuable 
of insect destroyers, and 
should be welcomed in the 
house and in the garden. 

Dragon flies are beautiful 
insects with gauzy wings. 
They may be seen about 
ponds and streams in the 
summer time. They are the 
great enemies of the mos- ^^ 
quitoes, the gnats, and the flies. 




87- 



Larva and eggs of the 
dragon fly. 

They dart through the 

pupa. In this state, it eats nothing. If it is a butterfly or moth, it wraps 
itself in a silken covering or wra[)s a leaf about itself, and may stay in this 
condition for some months. At last, however, it breaks through its cover- 
ing and becomes a fully developed insect. This, its last state before death, is 
called the imago state. The life history of each kind of insect varies some- 
what, but almost all insects pass through the forms egg, larva, pupa, and imago. 

G. & M. Ag. ID 



146 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



air, and catch many small insects on the wing. When 
they alight, they still keep their wings outspread. They 

lay their eggs on the stems of water 
plants or on the water. 

Damsel Flies are much like the 
dragon flies, but are smaller and fold 
their wings over the back when they 
are at rest. 

Toads — These homely looking an- 
imals are very useful in ridding us 
of harmful insects. If we knew all 
the good that they do by feeding on 
insects, we should not think them so 
ugly, and we certainly should nev.er 
stone them or kill them. Insects de- 
stroy every year over $300,000,000 
worth of our crops. A large part of 
this might be saved if we should pro- 
tect the toads and increase their num- 
ber. There is a popidar idea that 
toads will make warts if they are handled. This is an 
error. The toad is perfectly harmless. 

Bring a pair of toads into the house, and watch the 
good work that they do. A room may be cleared of 
cockroaches by leaving a toad in it over night. 

Get acquainted with the habits of the toads. You will 
find their study very interesting. Have you seen the large 
masses of bead-like eggs that the female toad lays ? 
Have you seen the tadpoles that have been hatched from 
the eggs? Have you watched their growth from tad- 
poles to toads ? 




Fig. 88.— A damsel fly. 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



147 




Fig. 89.— Toad. 



If you wish to raise a colony of toads, place a pair on 
a stone partly out of the water in a partly filled pail or 
jar. After the eggs are 
laid, watch them as 
they hatch into tad- 
poles. The tadpoles 
should be fed with bits 
of meat or bread, until 
they change into toads. 

Keep the garden well 
stocked with toads, and 
very little damage from 
insects need be feared. 

Birds — The largest number of the birds that fly about 
our homes are insect destroyers. Besides delighting the 
eye with their beauty and filling the world full of song, 
they are saving the farmers millions of dollars each year. 
How foolish it is to shoot these valuable birds or to rob 
their nests ! 

The birds living on insects have greatly decreased in 
number in the past few years, and the insects have in- 
creased so greatly that the farmer and the gardener have 
been put to extra labor to preserve their crops. 

The birds living largely on insects, worms, etc., are 
swallows, martins, vireos, woodpeckers, chickadees, wrens, 
cuckoos, swifts, and fly-catchers. 

The robin and the blue bird live on about equal quan- 
tities of insects and fruit. Because they come so early 
in the spring and destroy so many of the insects before 
they have laid their eggs for the season, these birds are 
of great value. 



148 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



Every means should be taken to attract the above men- 
tioned birds to our homes. They should be encouraged 
to nest in our trees and in our barns. We should plant 
trees that bear berries in the fall, so that the birds may 
have food for the winter months, when they can find no 
insects. Bird houses should be built, and, when the sea- 
son is dry, gourds or small pails containing water should 
be hung near their nesting places, and food furnished if 




Fig. 90. — Simple bird houses. 

necessary. Very comfortable nesting places may be made 
out of old tin cans that are thrown away. The top of the 
can may be bent back and nailed to a board or any flat 
surface (Figure 90, a). Then cut a small hole in the 
bottom of the can, allowing the tin partly cut out to pro- 
ject for a resting place. The cans may be grouped, as 
suggested in Figure 90, b, and held together with a hoop. 
Two boards may be nailed together for a roof. 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 



149 




CUCKOO 



HOUSE WREN 



BANK SWALLOW 




BAPN SWALLOW 



BLUEBIRD 



KING-BIRD 




RED WINGED 
BLACKBIRD 



BROWN THRUSH 



CROW BLACKBIRD 




AMERICAN CROW 



CAT BIRD 



ENGLISH SPARROW 



Fig. 91. — Food of some common birds. 



150 ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS 

The English sparrow is not a desirable bird for the 
United States. It not only eats much grain and vegetable 
matter, but has driven out a number of birds that are 
valuable as insect destroyers. We should take means to 
rid ourselves of this troublesome little fellow.^ 

Just after a bird has hatched, its stomach is very deli- 
cate, and it can digest animal food only. For that rea- 
son, all nestlings are fed on worms and insects. Even 
the birds that live mostly on grain and fruit when they 

^ The English sparrow is doing more damage to property than all the other 
birds in our latitude put together, and, as an agent of destruction to our native 
birds, the sparrow is unexcelled. No other bird will stay long where sparrows 
are once located. It means persecution in detail by individual sparrows and 
by mobs of them till all self-respecting birds are compelled to leave the locality. 
The English sparrow is the only bird that carries on a systematic attack upon 
the homes of its neighbors. It has been seen by many observers in different 
localities to visit the nests of its neighbors in the absence of the parent birds 
and to throw the young nestlings out upon the ground, in some cases dropping 
them ten to fifteen feet to the foot of the tree. The sparrows are with us 
all the year round, and, unlike most of our native birds, their food is almost 
entirely grain. They are, then, no substitute for the insectivorous birds that 
they expel, and they are a filthy nuisance about the barns and granaries as 
well as the dwellings where they congregate. They are a greater pest than 
rats and mice, and they are more difficult to combat. The most effective 
method of dealing with the sparrow is by poison. During the winter months, 
if a platform be built above the reach of the poultry, and the sparrows be fed 
there regularly in order to accustom them to the place, they may be easily 
poisoned. The recipe I quote from an article by E. B. Clark, in The Outing 
of January, 1901: "Mix a drachm of strychnine with three quarts of boiling 
water. Let the mixture boil until the poison is entirely dissolved. Into the 
poisoned water pour a sufficient quantity of wheat to absorb the liquid. Put 
the mixture aside for forty-eight hours. The wheat will be found to have 
swollen greatly. Spread it over the bottom of a large pan and place it in an 
oven until thoroughly dry. It must not, however, be allowed to scorch in 
the least. English sparrows consider wheat prepared in this way as a great 
tidbit. It gives to them a swift and painless death." This method reaches 
a hundred of the sparrows to ten that can be reached during any other part 
of the year, and farmers ought to bestir themselves, or the useful native birds 
will be exterminated or driven away by these sparrow pests. We must deal 
with the sparrows as we deal with rats and mice, and no false sentiment ought 
to be allowed to enter into the matter.^PROF. O. G. Libby. 



ANIMALS THAT DESTROY INSECTS I5I 

are full grown, are very valuable in destroying insects, 
grubs, etc., when they are feeding their young.^ 

Examination of the stomachs of different birds (see 
page 149) shows what birds are of the greatest value to 
the farmer. 



^During the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska in 1S74-1877, 
Prof. Samuel Aughey saw a long-billed marsh wren carry thirty locusts to 
her young in an hour. At this rate, for seven hours a day, a brood would 
consume 210 locusts per day, and the passerine birds of the eastern half of 
Nebraska, allowing only twenty broods to the square mile, would destroy daily 
162,771,000 of the pests. The average locust weighs about fifteen grains, and 
is capable each day of consuming its own weight of standing forage crops, 
which at $10.00 per ton would be worth $1,743.97. This case may serve as 
an illustration of the vast good that is done every year by the destruction 
of insect pests fed to nestling birds. And it should be remembered that the 
nesting season is also that when the destruction of injurious insects is most 
needed, that is, at the period of greatest agricultural activity and before the 
parasitic insects can be depended on to reduce the pests. The encouragement 
of birds to nest on the farm and the discouragement of nest robbing are 
therefore more than mere matters of sentiment; they return in actual cash 
equivalent, and have a definite bearing on the success or failure of the crops. — 
Year Book of the Department of Agriculture. 



29. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 

Importance of the Subject — There is a large market 
for meats, butter, eggs, lard, etc. The demand for wool, 
leather, furs, feathers, glue, horns, etc., is also large. 
Wild animals can not supply these wants entirely. Ani- 
mals must, therefore, be raised on the farm. The pro- 
duction of animals and of animal products, such as milk, 
butter, eggs and wool, is a very important branch of 
farming. 

What Must be Learned. — Animal husbandry requires 
a different kind of knowledge from that required for 
grain, fruit or vegetable growing. Animals require more 
attention than field crops. Their food, drink, light, and 
the air that they breathe, all need to be looked after. The 
care of their young demands careful attention. To learn 
to feed animals in the way that is best' for their develop- 
ment and also least expensive to the farmer, requires 
constant study. 

Economy in Raising Animals. — As we have learned 
in previous lessons, the selling of crops from the land 
removes the richest part of the land. Unless this is re- 
turned to the soil in some form, the soil will become 
" poor," and it will be impossible to produce good crops. 
When animals are grown on the farm, however, the farm 
products grown from the soil are fed to the animals, and 
are largely returned to the soil in the form of manure. 
The animal products that are sold, as meat, butter, eggs, 

152 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY I 53 

etc., take away little fertility from the farm, and bring 
to it a comparatively large amount of money. 

Breeds of Live Stock. — As there are many races of 
men, each having some peculiarities that distinguish it 
from the others, so there are great families in the animal 
world. These large families having distinguishing 
qualities that are transmitted from parent to offspring, 
are called breeds. 

The different breeds of farm animals have been pro- 
duced largely by careful selection and the mating of such 
animals as have certain traits or peculiarities that man 
desires to hold. 

NEAT CATTLE. 

The various breeds of cattle are probably descended 
from the same stock. Although there are about one hun- 
dred different breeds known in the world, there are but 
a few that are important for us to know. They may be 
divided into two great classes, depending on their pur- 
pose: dairy breeds and beef breeds. The dairy breeds 
have for their chief purpose the production of milk, butter 
and cheese. The beef breeds have for their chief pur- 
pose the production of flesh or beef. 



30. PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS (PI. V., VI.). 





Superior wedge of dairy cow. 



The Dairy Type. — In order that the dairy cow may 
produce much rich milk, she must have a large stomach. 

Her head is usually 
small, but her mouth is 
large. The udder is 
wide and full, extend- 
ing well forward and 

Fig. 92.— Dairy type. (Biggie Book.) \y[g[^ ^p {^l the back be- 
tween the legs. Her milk veins are large and extend 
well forward with many branches. 
In general appearance, she is 
loose and angular, and is not 
beautiful, unless the motto, 
" Pretty is as pretty does," be ac- 
cepted. Her form presents the 
appearance of a double wedge. 

Jersey Cattle. — These cattle 
originated on the island of Jer- 
sey in the English Channel. 
They have been bred there for 
more than two hundred years, un- 
mixed with any other breeds. A 
law was passed in 1779, forbid- 
ding cattle of any kind to be 
brought to the island for breed- 
ing. Its enforcement has kept this iDreed in its pure state. 
The cows are quite small, with deerlike heads and neat 

IS4 




Inferior wedge of dairy cow. 




Superior wedge of beef cow. 




Inferior wedge of beef cow. 



Fig. 93. — Contrasts in 
"wedges." (Biggie Book.) 



PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS 1 55 

forms. The Jersey cow is a great butter producer. The 
milk is very rich in butter fat, and the cream rises more 
rapidly and perfectly than that of most breeds. The 
average Jersey cows will produce 400 pounds of butter 
per year, and the best have produced as high as 1,000 
pounds in that time. 

Guernsey Cattle — This breed was produced on the 
island of Guernsey, not far from the home of the Jerseys. 
Guernsey cattle are somewhat larger and coarser than the 
Jerseys, but they resemble them in their ability to produce 
butter. They give a somewhat larger supply of milk, 
and it is fully as rich as that of the Jerseys. These are 
very gentle cattle, and are very popular with dairymen. 

Ayrshire Cattle. — These cattle are natives of the county 
of Ayr in the southwestern part of Scotland. They are 
good butter producers, but are classed chiefly as cheese 
cows. The quality of their milk is good and the quan- 
tity is large. The milk is easily digested even by infants, 
and is the best for family trade. The Ayrshires are 
hardy and active. They are able to gather food from 
scanty pastures better than other breeds. Their short, 
upward-turned horns, the large patches of red or brown 
and white, and the fine dairy form, make them a very at- 
tractive breed. 

Holstein Friesian Cattle. — These cattle are sometimes 
called the Dutch or the Holland cattle. The breed had 
its origin in Holland, and is the oldest distinct breed in 
existence. It produces a larger quantity of milk than 
any other breed. The quality of the milk has not been so 
good as that of the other dairy breeds, but it has been 
much improved during the past few years. 



156 PRINCIPAL DAIRY BREEDS 

The breed is of value also for beef. The frame is large, 
and the color is black and white. ^ 

The Brown Swiss Cattle originated in Switzerland. 
They have short heavy legs, and in size and color resem- 
ble the Jerseys. They are large milk producers, and fur- 
nish some good beef. 



^ The Dutch Belted Cattle are much like the Holstein-Friesian, from which 
they are derived. They are colored black and white, the white being in the 
shape of a blanket or belt around the body. 



31. BEEF BREEDS (PL VII., VIII.). 




The Beef Type. — The body of the beef animal is well- 
rounded and compact. This arises from its tendency to 
lay on flesh. In gen- 
eral, it presents the ap- 
pearance of a brick set 
on edge. The back is 
broad, both in front 
and behind. The ud- '**^^^ 

der is much smaller Fig. 94.— Beef type. (Biggie Book.) 

than in the dairy breeds. The short stout legs are set 
squarely at each corner of the body. 

Shorthorn Cattle. — This is the most important breed 
of cattle, and outnumbers any other breed. Its origin is 
in Durham County, England, and for this reason it was 
formerly called " Durham." 

Some Shorthorn cows produce a good quantity of rich 
milk. Some herds are valuable as butter makers, and 
others for cheese production ; but, as a breed, the Short- 
horn belongs in the beef class, although some individuals 
have made great dairy records. 

The Shorthorn is of a quiet disposition and is easily 
kept, eating coarse fodders, as well as softer foods. 

The Polled Durham breed originated in America. It 
is very much like the Shorthorn, from which it was de- 
rived, except that it is hornless. 

The Hereford Cattle. — The Herefords originated in 
Hereford County, in England. They are distinctly a 

157 



158 BEEF BREEDS 

beef breed, the milk being of little account. The beef is 
good and is somewhat mixed with fat. 

These animals are hardy and adapted to cold climates. 
The face, breast, belly, and the lower part of the legs, are 
white. 

The Aberdeen Angus Cattle. — These are sometimes 
called the Polled Angus. They are black like the Gallo- 
way breed, but differ from it chiefly in being somewhat 
larger and finer in bone, head and hair. The hair is 
smooth. They are better adapted for indoor feeding. 

The Galloway Cattle. — The Galloway cattle originated 
in Scotland. They are a polled, or hornless, breed. They 
have thick coats of black hair, and are especially adapted 
to exposure and extremes of heat and cold. They are 
very valuable for the western part of the United States, 
where they seek their own food on the plains. Their 
coats, when tanned, make good robes. 

Devon Cattle — Devon cattle take their name from the 
county of Devon, England. They are a very old breed, and 
were noted at first for their fine dairy qualities, but of late 
have been valued chiefly for their fine quality of beef. 

Red Polled Cattle are very much like the Devon. They 
are becoming popular in this country. 

The Simmenthal Cattle are of Swiss origin, and are 
valuable for dairy purposes, for beef, and for work. 

The Native (Scrub) Cattle. — These are not a pure 
breed, but a mixture of breeds. There are a large num- 
ber of these cattle in the United States. Although many 
Natives are valuable for one purpose or another, the re- 
sults are very uncertain. A herd of Native cattle may be 
greatly improved by placing at its head a bull of the type 
toward which it is desired to breed. 



32. DAIRYING. 



Creameries and Cheese Factories. — Butter and cheese 
were formerly made entirely on the farm. They are now 
made chiefly in fac- 
tories, where the 
milk may be had in 
large quantities. In 
this manner, the ex- 
pense of manufac- 
ture is greatly re- 
duced. A more uni- 
form quality can 
also be secured, and 
better opportunities 
for selling the prod- 
ucts are found. Some 
dairymen prefer to 
make their butter at 
home. With proper 
skill and care, excel- 
lent results are se- 
cured. The highest 
prices are generally 
received by dairy- 
men who make their P'°- 95 — OW fashioned chum. 

own butter, provided they use special care and skill in 
making it. 

159 




i6o 



DAIRYING 



Butter factories are called " creameries." Butter made 
at a creamery is known in the market as " creamery but- 
ter." That made on the farm is known as " dairy 
butter." 

The successful manufacturer of butter and cheese must 
have more or less special education and training. These 
can best be acquired in a dairy school. 



MILK. 

The Composition of Milk Milk is the most important 

product of the cow on the dairy farm. It is produced in 

the glands of the cow's 
udder. Milk is com- 
posed largely of water, 
in which fat globules 
are floating, and in 
which casein, albumen, 
sugar, and mineral 
matter or ash are dis- 
solved. Although the 
amounts of these sub- 
stances vary greatly, 
the average propor- 
tions are indicated in 
the diagram given 
(Figure 96). 
Althouo-h the fat in milk 



. 1__ : _ . 


= 





. — — ' _ _r 





_ : _ — 


■■ ■ ■ , 




- - — — 











— . — _ _ 1 


- — 


-WATE 


3 QT •> "L- 


1 




-. - - . 


r . : — 


_ - 


, — , ■ -^ 


:, FAT 3.7570 


CASEIN 25? 


SUGAR5IS% 


ASH 
.7> 


ALBU 



Fig. 96. — Diagram showing composition of 
milk. (S. M. Babcock, Wis. Bui. No. 
61.) 



Milk is heavier than water 
is lighter than water and for that reason has a tendency 
to rise, the other substances in it make the milk heavier. 

The Fat. — The fat in the milk is the most important 
element in the production of butter. It is floating in the 



DAIRYING 



l6l 



milk and a part of it rises to the top to form cream. Some 
of the fat globules do not rise to the top. They are held 
down by the albumen and sugar in the milk. 

The fat globules vary in size. Milk from the Jerseys 
and Guernseys has larger globules, than that from the 
Ayrshires and the Holsteins. Large globules are an advan- 
tage in butter making, as they rise more easily than the 
small ones. Small globules are an advantage in cheese 







Fig. 97. — Appearance of milk under the microscope, showing the natural 
grouping of the fat globules. In the circle a single group is highly magnified. 
(S. M. Babcock, Wis. Bui. No. 61.) 



making, as they do not rise so quickly, and are held in the 
milk when it curdles. 

The fat globules are collected in irregular groups in 
milk. Under the microscope, these groups or families 
may be readily seen. 

The Sugar — The sugar in milk is not so sweet as or- 
dinary sugar. It is called lactose or " sugar of milk." 
It is prepared for the market in some factories. It is used 
to make pills and powders for holding medicines. 

G. & M. Ag. II. 



l62 DAIRYING 

When milk sours, the sugar is changed into lactic acid, 
which gives to milk its sour taste. 

Other Substances in Milk. — Casein is the chief proteid 
in milk. It is of value in cheese making. If rennet or 
a weak acid be added to milk, the casein is changed into a 
curd, from which the cheese is made. 

Albumen or Protein in the milk is much like albumin in 
the blood. It differs from casein in that it coagulates, or 
thickens, when heated. It is the skinlike or paperlike sub- 
stance that appears on the surface of skim milk when it is 
boiled. 

The ash in milk is composed mostly of phosphate of 
lime, but there are many other minerals found in small 
quantities. 

Colostrum. — The first milk that the cow gives after 
the birth of a calf is called colostrum. It contains from 
ten to fifteen times as much albumen as the milk does later, 
and contains less fat and sugar. Colostrum is sometimes 
called " calves' milk." It should not be used for at least 
three days after the birth of the calf. It is safer to wait 
one week before using the milk. 

Yield : Quantity and Quality — The average cow pro- 
duces about 4,000 pounds of milk per year. Some herds 
will yield an average of 6,000 pounds for each cow. In 
one exceptional case, the yield for a single cow reached 
30,000 pounds. In general, the cow should yield at least 
six times her live weight to be a profitable member of a 
dairy herd. 

The profitableness of a dairy cow depends as much on 
the quality of the milk as it does on the quantity. Milk 
rich in fat and of large quantity should be the aim of all 



DAIRYING 



163 



dairymen: It costs no more to raise a cow that yields 
fat sufficient to make 300 pounds of butter than it does to 
raise one producing but 200 pounds. Cows that are not 
profitable are called " boarders." The worst of it is that 
they never pay for their board. 

It is well to choose a breed that will produce the desired 
quantity and quality of milk, but that will not be enough. 
Even in the best dairy breeds, there are some boarders eat- 
ing up the farmer's profits. These should be got rid of 
as soon as discovered. 

The Babcock Test. — The only certain way to find out 
which cows in a herd are profitable and which are not, is 
to make frequent tests. 
The milk should be 
weighed, and the amount 
of butter fat determined 
by the use of the " Bab- 
cock Test." This test 
was discovered, and the 
machine for making the 
test invented, by Dr. 
S. M. Babcock, of Mad- 
ison, Wisconsin. The 
use of this simple test 
has been the means of ^"^- 98 — Babcock miik tester, 

improving dairymen's herds and methods everywhere. 
Till this discovery was made, it was difficult to tell where 
profits or losses were made. Now we have a sure and 
simple test that every farmer may use. 

Full directions for operating the Babcock Test are given 
in the Appendix, page 227. 




164 



DAIRYING 



The Importance of Rich Milk in Cheese Making 

Even in cheese making, the richness of milk is important. 
The amount of casein in milk increases with the amount of 
fat. Besides this, the fat in the milk makes the cheese 
much richer and better than it would be without it. 








* 



:v^nvr.tii.uH'sJi; 




Fig. 99. — Each cheese was made from 200 pounds of milk. 

A test made in the Dairy School of the University of 

Wisconsin shows that milk rich in fat makes the largest 

and best cheese. Figure 99 shows the result of the test 

plainly. 

HOW TO GET GOOD MILK. 

Health of the Cow. — Good milk can be obtained only 
from healthy cows. If cows have disease of any kind, 
it is liable to affect the milk. 

The most common of the diseases that affect cows is 
tuberculosis or consumption. It has been found that the 



DAIRYING 165 

UihcrciiUn test will show what cows have the disease. 
Such cows should be disposed of. Although cows may 
be afflicted with tuberculosis without spreading the disease 
among those who use the milk, it is not safe to use it. 

To keep cows in a healthy condition, they should have 
plenty of pure air, good light, and clean stables. The 
stables should be ventilated, and should not be over- 
crowded. Not less than one thousand cubic feet of space 
should be allowed for each cow. 

The stable should be kept just as clean as possible. All 
dirt, dust and manure should be cleaned out regularly. 

Condition of the Cow. — The cow is a sensitive and af- 
fectionate animal. The yield and quality of the milk she 
gives depend much upon her mental condition. She be- 
comes acquainted with her milker. If he treats her kindly 
she enjoys being milked, and yields her largest amount of 
milk of the highest quality; but if she is afraid of her 
milker, and if she is scolded and abused, both the quantity 
and the quality of her milk are reduced. These facts have 
been proved by the most careful experiments. The wise 
dairyman will make his cows comfortable by giving them 
food and drink that they enjoy. He will give them light 
and clean quarters. He will protect them from cold in 
winter, and from insects in summer. He will also treat 
them tenderly, so as to win their affection. 

Condition of Surroundings. — If the cow produces good 
milk, the milk may still be spoiled unless all impurities are 
kept out of it. The milker should have clean clothes and 
clean hands, and should milk into pails that have been 
thoroughly washed. The cow should be curried and 
brushed, so that dirt may not fall into the pail while milk- 



1 66 



DAIRYING 



jiig is in progress. The udder should be thoroughly- 
clean, and the milking should be done with dry hands. 
The milk coming from a healthy cow is pure, but, if it is 
kept in a dirty stable or in a milk room where the air is 
not pure, it soon absorbs the foul odors and becomes 
tainted. 

Bacteria. — There are many bacteria that get into the 
warm milk, and multiply so rapidly that the milk sours. 
To avoid the bacteria, the utmost cleanliness must be ob- 




FiG. 100. — Microscopic appearance of ordinary milk showing fat globules and 
bacteria in the milk serum. The cluster of bacteria on left side are lactic- 
acid-forming germs. (H. L. Russell, Wis. Cul. No. 62.) 



served in the stables, in milking and in the milk room. 
It will be impossible even then to avoid them altogether, 
but their number will be greatly reduced. Cooling the 
milk as soon as possible after it is drawn prevents the 
bacteria from multiplying, and makes it possible to keep 
the milk sweet. 



DAIRYING 167 

Kinds of Bacteria. — There are many bacteria found 
in milk. Some work on the milk sugar, and turn it to 
lactic acid and thus sour the milk. Others attack 
the fat in milk and make butter rancid or strong. Still 
others give to butter its flavor. These are called friendly 
bacteria, and are often put into cream to give the butter 
just the flavor desired. By cleanliness and care in cooling 
the milk, the liarmful bacteria may be held in check, so 
that the friendly bacteria may have a chance to grow. 






Progeny of 

a Single Germ © 

in twelve hours. ^^~""^-^-^/7/r 




£Po/ew 



Fig. ioi. — Cooling hinders growth of I)acteria. (H. L. Russell, Wis. Bui. 

No. 6-:.) 

Pasteurization.— It has been found possible to destroy 
all disease germs and the bacteria that are unfriendly in 
milk, by pasteitricing it. In this process, the milk is 
heated to a temperature of about 160° F., and held at that 
point for about fifteen minutes ; then it is cooled as rapidly 
as possible to a temperature of 50° F. This destroys the 
germs but does not otherwise affect the milk. Many 
machines have been invented for doing this work, but it 
may be done in the home without the use of machinery. 



1 68 



DAIRYING 



The Cream Separator. — The cream separator is a ma- 
chine for separating the cream from the milk. It does 

the work much better and 
much more quickly than 
it can be done by allowing 
the cream to rise in pans 
or in cans. 

The milk is turned into 
a bowl which is rotated 
rapidly. The milk being 
heavier than the cream, 
is thrown by the revolv- 
ing bowl to the outside, 
and passes out through a 
spout, while the cream 
seeks the center and 
passes out through an- 
other spout. The sepa- 
rator collects many im- 
purities from the milk 
that even the best strain- 
ers fail to catch. Sepa- 
rator cream is therefore much purer than other cream. 




Fig. 102. — Cream separator. 



33. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

Substances in Bodies of Animals The bodies of ani- 
mals contain flesh, fat, bones, teeth, hair, etc. ; or, we may 
say that their bodies are composed of water, ash (mineral 
matter), protein and fat. These are the substances that 
must be supphed in the food that the animals eat. The 
body is more than half water, and it is fortunate that ani- 
mals have but little difficulty in getting it. Besides the 
water that they drink, a large part of their food is com- 
posed of water. The ash, or mineral matter, is found in 
all of the foods that animals eat. The largest part of it is 
phosphate of lime. Protein is the name given to the most 
important group of substances to be supplied by the food. 
It forms the principal part of the flesh, skin, brain and 
nerves. It contains nitrogen as its most important ele- 
ment. Fat is found in nearly all parts of the body, and is 
very important in the composition of milk. 

Substances to be Studied. — Little attention need be 
given to supplying water or ash to animals- These may 
be obtained ordinarily in large quantities without cost. 
The protein and the fat-forming foods, however, require 
considerable attention. They are the expensive part of 
the food of an animal, and should be fed with care so that 
there may be no loss. 

Protein and Carbohydrates. — These are two words 

that may seem difficult to understand at first, but they are 

really very simple. Use the words whenever possible, 

169 



170 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

and they will not seem so difficult. Have you ever made 
chewing gum by chewing the grains of wheat? This 
gum was made almost entirely of protein. It is called 
gluten in the wheat. In cheese, it is called casein. In 
the white of an egg, it is called albumen. Protein is found 
in all the field grains, in hay, in clover, in peas and in 
beans. It goes to form the flesh, the cartilage, the hair, 
the wool, and the casein and albumen of milk. It forms 
the material in the body that is used up when work is 
performed. Carbohydrates are principally the sugars and 
the starches. Granulated sugar is a pure crystallized car- 
bohydrate. Potato is composed almost entirely of starch 
and sugar. The potato is a carbohydrate. Nearly all 
fruits and vegetables are carbohydrates. The grains have 
some starch in them, and that part of them is carbohydrate. 
The same may be said of hay, grass and fodder. The 
carbohydrates are chiefly valuable in keeping up the heat 
of the body and in forming fat. 

Office of Protein and Carbohydrates. — Protein and 
corbohydrates may be likened to the coal that is put into 
the steam engine to give it power to do work. When the 
work is done, the substances are consumed or burned up. 
It is an interesting fact that the carbohydrates are much 
more easily consumed in the body than the proteins. 
When the body has work to do, or uses up fuel in keeping 
warm, it first calls on the carbohydrates for service. The 
proteins are not used until the carbohydrates are largely 
consumed ; then the proteins are called on. If more car- 
bohydrates be furnished than is necessary to keep the body 
warm and to furnish the energy for work, the body stores 
it up in the shape of fat. The dairy cow secretes it in the 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING I7I 

udder ; the beef cow and the hog lay the fat on over the 
muscles. 

Fat — Some foods, such as cotton-seed meal, linseed 
meal, nuts, etc., contain a considerable quantity of oil or 
fat. This is used by the animals for food in the same way 
and for the same purpose as the carbohydrates. It is, 
however, about two and one-fourth times as valuable in 
producing heat as the same quantity of carbohydrates. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Make a list of ten animal foods valuable chiefly for 
protein. 

2. Make a list of ten foods valuable chiefly as carbo- 
hydrates. 

3. Consult the Fodder Tables (p. 215), and arrange 
the foods in each list according to the relative amounts of 
protein and carbohydrate in each. 

Feeding Standards. — It is evident from the lists that 
you have made that the most expensive foods are those 
valuable chiefly for the protein which they contain. The 
economical farmer will feed these foods as sparingly as 
possible and still produce the results he desires. It has 
been found by careful testing just what proportion of 
protein and carbohydrates it is best to feed an animal. 
For instance, it has been found that, for an average dairy 
cow, about six times as much carbohydrates as protein 
should be fed for the best results. This relation is usu- 
ally expressed as a ratio, as i to 6 or i : 6, and is called the 
nutritive ratio. This means that, for every pound of 
protein, six pounds of carbohydrates should be given. 



172 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

Chemists have determined the amounts of protein and 
carbohydrates in all of the common feeding stuffs. From 
tables prepared by them, we may " figure out " a ration 
with such foods as may be raised on the farm or pur- 
chased. It is sometimes more economical to sell certain 
feed, and to buy other feed that contains the elements 
needed to make a proper ration. 

Balanced Ration. — A balanced ration is a statement 
of the quantities of various feeds that will provide a nu- 
tritive ratio that is proper. Suppose we wished to make 
a balanced ration for an average dairy cow. We find 
from the Table of Nutrients (p. 221) that such a cow 
needs daily about twenty-seven pounds of dry matter. She 
needs two pounds of digestible protein, eleven pounds 
of carbohydrates, and four tenths of a pound of fat. If 
we multiply the fat required by two and one fourth, it 
will be equivalent to about one pound of carbohydrates. 
The nutritive ratio, given in the Table of Nutrients (p. 
221), is 1:6. Suppose we have clover hay, corn stover, 
bran, corn meal, and cotton-seed meal, to feed. 

Dry Digestible Digestible 

matter. protein, carbohydrates. 

Clover hay, 15 lbs 12.7 1.07 6.3 

Corn stover, 7.5 lbs 4.5 .11 2.5 

Bran, 2.5 lbs 2.2 .30 1.2 

Corn meal, 3 lbs 2.6 .19 2.1 

Cotton-seed meal, i lb .9 .40 .4 

Result 22.9 2.07 12.5 

Standard 27.0 2.00 12.0 

Nutritive ratio, 1:6. 

It must not be expected that a ration will figure out 
exactly according to the needs. The above ration is close 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 1 73 

enough for all practical purposes. The " dry matter " 
is about five pounds short of the requirement, but that 
is not important. The figuring out of a ration for any 
animal is somewhat a matter of guessing. 

Suppose we wish to figure out a ration for a horse 
at light work and weighing one thousand pounds. We 
have on hand mixed hay, oats and bran. How much of 
each may we feed, and make a balanced ration? Let us 
look first on page 221 of the Appendix, and we see that a 
horse w^eighing about 1,000 pounds, at light work, re- 
quires daily 20 pounds of digestible dry matter, 1.5 
pounds of protein, and 10.4 pounds of carbohydrates (.4 
lbs. X 254 + 9-5 lbs.), making a ratio of i : 7. That is, 
seven times as many pounds of carbohydrates and fats as 
protein should be fed. This we might call a medium 
ratio.^ 

Now let us make a guess of a ration for our work horse. 
Let us take fifteen pounds of mixed hay and five pounds 
of oats, and see how close our result comes to the standard. 
From the Fodder Tables (p. 215) in the Appendix, we 
find our ration figures out as follows : 



15 lbs. Mixed hay 

5 lbs. Oats 

Result 

Standard 

Lacks 2.8 Lacks .38 Lacks i 

^ The terms " medium " ratio, " wide " ratio and " narrow " ratio are used 
to indicate the relative amount of carbohydrates compared with the protein 
elements. A " wide " ratio means more of the carbohydrates as compared 



ligestible 


Digestible 


Digestible 


■y matter. 


protein. 


carbohydrates, 


12.7 


.66 


6.6 


4-5 


.46 


2.8 


17.2 


1. 12 


94 


20.0 


ISO 


10.4 



174 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

The ration so far is lacking in food at every point. We 
must select foods for the remainder of the ration that 
have a wide ratio. Let us add three pounds of bran. 
This will produce the following result : 

Dry matter. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

Previously obtained 17.2 1.12 9.4 

3 lbs. Bran 2.6 .36 1.4 



Result 19.8 1.48 10.8 

Standard 20.0 1.50 10.4 



Lacks .2 Lacks .02 Excess .4 

Comparing our result with the standard, we find that 
we still lack .2 lb. of dry matter of reaching the require- 
ment, but this makes but little difference. It lacks .02 
lb. of the amount required for protein. As this is a very 
important element, it might be well to select some other 
food, having a narrower ratio, such as linseed meal, to be 
given in small amounts. The amount of carbohydrates 
is close enough to the standard for all practical purposes. 
It is not necessary that the ration be brought exactly to 
the standard ; but, in the amounts of protein and carbo- 
hydrates, it should not vary much from it. If the 
amount of dry matter vary two or three pounds either 
way, it will make but little difference. 

Cost and Feeding. — The wise farmer will figure the 
cost of the different food stuffs very carefully to find out 
what is the most profitable to feed. It is often best to 
sell some of the foods having a wide ratio, such as hay 

with the proteins, than the "medium" ratio; a "narrow" ratio means less 
of the carbohydrates. For a dairy cow, the ratio of i : 6 might be considered 
a medium ratio; 1:4, a narrow ratio; and 1:12, a wide ratio. 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 1 75 

and potatoes, and to purchase foods having a narrow ra- 
tio, such as cotton-seed or linseed meal. 

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. — On account of 
the value of certain foods as manure, it is also necessary 
to figure on the manurial value of a food as well as on its 
feeding value. From the Table on page 223, it may be 
seen that some substances are of far greater value as 
manure than others, and this fact should be considered 
in making a profitable ration, and in determining what 
foods to sell and what to purchase. 

PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES. 

1. Make a ration for a milch cow of about 1,000 
pounds weight, using silage, alfalfa, and wheat bran. 

2. Suppose a farmer has ground oats, corn meal, 
mixed hay, and stover (cornstalks) on his farm. Could 
a balanced ration for a dairy cow be made from these 
alone? Select additional foods from the table to make 
a balanced ration for a dairy cow (1,000 lbs.). 

3. If a farmer feed to a dairy cow of 1,400 pounds 
weight, 60 pounds of mature corn ensilage daily, how 
much of clover hay, corn meal, ground peas, wheat meal, 
and wheat middlings should be fed with it to make a 
balanced ration? 

4. Make a ration for a dairy cow ( 1,000 lbs.), having 
the usual ratio of 1:6, of mixed hay, mangel-wurzels, 
corn meal, oats, wheat bran, and gluten flour. 

5. A farmer fed his cows, averaging about 1,000 
pounds each, 10 pounds timothy hay, 13 pounds stover, 
and 6 pounds straw. His cows averaged but 156 pounds 
of butter each year. Why does he get such poor results ? 



176 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

Suggest changes In the feed that would be Hkely to in- 
crease the amount of butter produced. 

6. A herd of Shorthorns, weighing an average of 
1,300 pounds, was fed daily as follows: 

Mixed hay 10 lbs. 

Stover 5 lbs. 

Straw 5 lbs. 

Turnips 15 lbs. 

Corn meal 2 lbs. 

Wheat bran 2 lbs. 

What is the nutritive ratio of this ration? Suggest 
changes that would produce better results. 

7. The nutritive ratio for a growing boy or girl with 
ordinary exercise is about i : 5.2. Make a good food 
ration for such a boy or girl from the table found on 
page 226. 

8. A man at hard work on the farm should be fed 
a ration having a nutritive ratio of i : 6.9. Make a ration 
from the following : Baked apples, bread and butter, po- 
tatoes, boiled beef, and rice pudding. 

9. The following made up the bill of fare of a hard- 
working farmer: White flour biscuit, molasses, butter, 
potatoes, and fat pork. Suggest changes and additions 
that will give him the food better adapted to his needs. 



34. HORSES. 

Breeds. — The different breeds of horses may be classed 
as follows : 

1. Those valuable for speed. 

2. Those valuable for drawing loads. 

3. Those valuable as coach horses. 

4. Ponies. 




Fig. 103. — One of General Grant's Arabians. 

Horses Valuable for Speed. — The Arabian horse was 
probably the origin of horses noted for speed. At pres- 
ent, it is not so speedy as many of the breeds which 
G. & M. Ag. 12. 177 



178 



HORSES 



have sprung from it. After General Grant made his trip 
around the world, he was presented with a fine team of 
Arabians. A picture of one of them is given (Figure 103), 
The Thoroughbred horse is an animal of great endur- 
ance and great speed. The Thoroughbreds are running 
horses and are bred chiefly for racing. The breed was 




Fig. 104. — Dan Patch, 1:56^4. 

established in England by a mixture of native stock with 
Arabian. 

The American trotting Iwrses do not yet make a dis- 
tinct breed, but they are better known than many of the 
distinct breeds. The most important families of this class 



HORSES 



179 



are Hambletonians, Mambrinos, and Clays. The Mor- 
gans, also, belong- to this class, and are probably the most 
popular for general purposes. 

Horses Valuable for Drawing Loads (Draft). — The 

draft horses differ chiefly from the horses valued for speed 




Fig. 105. — Percheron stallion. 



in being much heavier and larger. The back is broader 
and the legs are shorter. The chief breeds are here illus- 
trated. 

The Percheron was developed in France. When the 



i8o 



HORSES 



breed was first established most of the horses were dap- 
pled gray, but the largest number are now black or dark 
brown. The Percherons are good farm horses. They 
are gentle, active, and strong. The French Draft horse 
is similar to the Percheron. 




Fig. io6. — Clydesdale stallion. 

The English Shire horse is low, broad, and stout. It 
is not a very active breed and is adapted to drawing heavy 
loads with slow motion. 

The Clydesdale, a native of Scotland, is a well muscled, 
well proportioned horse. Fine long hair grows from the 
edge of the low^r legs. The Clydesdale has a rapid walk 
and is a very useful and popular farm horse. 



HORSES 



l8l 



Coach Horses. — These horses are in size and form be- 
tween the speed horses and the draft horses, having some 
of the quahties of each. The chief breeds are the French 
Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the German Coach and the 
Hackney horse. 

Ponies — These horses are much smaller than other 
breeds. 







^■1^. f\ » m.^m v«kj:, z.:,^ 


^^ 


L. --^ 





Fig. 107. — Coach horses. 

The Shetland ponies, originating in the Shetland 
Islands, near the west coast of Scotland, are bred for 
their small size. They are especially adapted for chil- 
dren's use. 

The Indian ponies, in the northern part of the United 
States, and the mustangs, in the southern part, originated 
from the horses brought to this country by the early ex- 
plorers from Spain and France. Both the Indian Pony 
and the Mustang are valuable as saddle animals. 



1 82 



HORSES 




Care of Horses. — The horse is a noble animal, of fine 
spirit and sensibilities, and requires careful treatment. 
. -._ Kind treatment and gen- 

tle handling will give 
the horse a good dispo- 
sition, and will save 
money in feed besides. 
It will pay to figure out 
a good ration for the 
horse from the tables 
given in the Appendix. 
A well-balanced ration 
will keep a horse in good 
condition without over- 
" feeding. Young people 

Fig. 1 08.— Shetland pony. ^vho liavc read " Black 

Beauty " will sympathize with the horse, and will give 
him the best of treatment. 

SOME HORSE SENSE. 

(From Biggie Book.) 

Be gentle, be kind, be patient. 

The brush will save oats. 

If you must put frosty bits in some mouth, let it be 
your own. Suffering begets sympathy. 

Many a horse stands up all night because his stall is 
not made so that he can lie down in comfort. 

You can not whip terror out of a horse, or pound cour- 
age into one. If he shies or becomes frightened, soothe 
and encourage him rather than beat and abuse him. 

A horse can travel safer and better if he is not checked 
too high. By all means let your working horse have his 
head. 



35. SHEEP. 



Breeds of Sheep. — Sheep are raised for their mutton 
and for their wool. The breeds are often classified ac- 
cording to the fineness of their wool. The fine-wooled 
sheep are the Merino, the Delaine, and the Rambouillet. 
The medium-wooled breeds are the Southdown, the 




Fig. 109. — American Merino ram, four years old. 

Shropshire, the Dorset, the Hampshire, the Oxford, and 
the Cheviot. The long-wooled sheep are the Leicester, 
the Cotswold, and the Lincoln. 

Fine-wooled Sheep. — The Merino is a native of Spain, 
and is distinguished by the large wrinkles on its neck and 
body, and its fine, oily wool. The wool of this sheep is 

183 



1 84 



SHEEP 




s_, :%fO 



Fig 1 10. — Cheviot ram. 



finer than that of any other breed. The Merino is raised 
chiefly for its wool, though some famihes produce very 




Fig. III. — Southdown ram. 



SHEEP 



185 



good mutton. Large numbers of Merinos are raised in 
the southwestern states of our country. They are par- 
ticularly adapted to warm climates. 

The Delaine is de- 
scended from the 
Merino. It is larger 
and stronger than 
the Merino, and is 
freer from wrink- 
les. This breed is 
coming in favor for 
its mutton. 

The Ramboiiillct, 
or French Merinos, 
are the largest of the 
Merinos and have a 
mutton form. The 
fleece is not so heavy 
in proportion to the 
size of the sheep as 

the Merinos ^'°' "■■ — Shropshire yearling. 

The Cheviot is a native of the hills between England 
and Scotland. It is a hardy breed and produces a wool 
adapted to make the cheviot cloth. The entire head and 
the legs are pure white. 

The Medium-wooled Breeds. — The Sonthdozmi,. the 
smallest of the medium-wooled breeds, is an English 
sheep. It is hornless, its head and legs being of a gray- 
brown color. The wool is of medium fineness, but the 
sheep is valuable chiefly for its production of mutton. 

The Shropshire sheep takes its name from the county of 




1 86 



SHEEP 




Fig. 113. — Hampshire-down ram. 



the same name in England, where it was first brought to 
notice. It resembles the Southdown in appearance. It 




Fig. 1 14. — Oxford-down ram. 



SHEEP 



187 



is especially adapted for the lowlands, thus being prob- 
ably the best all-purpose sheep for the central part of 
the United States. 

The Dorset is valuable chiefly in producing winter 
lambs. Both the rams and the ewes have horns. They 
are considerably larger than the Southdowns. The head 
and legs are white. 

The Horned Dorset is an English breed. Its nose, 




Fig. 11 = 



Lincoln ram. 



hoofs and legs are white, and it has a tuft of wool on its 
forehead. The Horned Dorsets are not so important or 
so widely distributed as the Merinos. 

The Hampshire is similar to the Shropshire, but is 
larger and coarser. 

The Oxford is the largest of this class of sheep. 
Neither the Hampshire nor the Oxford sheep are widely 
distributed in the United States. 

The Long-wooled Breeds.— The Leicester, Cotswold, 



1 88 SHEEP 

and Lincoln are English sheep bred chiefly for their long 
wool. They are of large size and require rich pasturage. 
They are not popular breeds in the United States. 

Advantage of Sheep Production. — Rough and scanty 
pasturage that would be too poor for other farm animals, 
may often be used to raise sheep. As a result, also, the 
fertility of the land is greatly increased, and weeds are 
kept down. The profits from sheep raising under favor- 
able conditions are greater than those from raising stock 
of any other kind. 



36. SWINE. 

Breeds of Swine. — The different breeds of swine are 
divided into classes according to size. The most impor- 
tant breeds of hogs are the Berkshire, the Poland-China, 
the Duroc Jersey, the Tamworth, the Large Yorkshire, 
and the Chester White. 




Fig. 1 1 6. — Texas razor back hog. 

The Berkshires. — The Berkshires are black, with white 
markings on the head, feet, and sometimes on the front 
legs. The head is thick and short and the face is dished. 

The Poland-Chinas. — This breed is black, with white 
markings on the head and feet. The head is short and 
thick, w4th slightly dished face and small, drooping ears. 

The Duroc Jerseys. — These swine are red or light 

brown. They have short heads, with slightly dished 

189 



190 



SWINE 



faces, and drooping ears. The body is compact and 
plump and resembles that of the Poland-Chinas. 




Fig. 117. — Berkshire hog. 



The Large Yorkshires. — This breed is white. They 
have long-, narrow bodies, medium length heads, erect 
ears, and much dished faces. 




Fig. 118. — Poland-China hog. 



SWINE 



191 



The Tamworths. — These hogs are red or brown in 
color, hke the Duroc Jerseys, but they have longer legs 




Fig. 119. — Duroc Jersey hoR. 

and slimmer bodies than that breed. The nose is long 
and straight, and the ears are erect. 




Fig. 130. — Tamworth hog. 

The Chester Whites. — As the name Indicates, these 
hogs are white. The head is short and slightly dished. 
The ears are drooping and the body is large and compact. 



192 SWINE 

The Advantage of Swine Raising. — A pound of swine 
flesh can be produced more cheaply than a pound of flesh 
in any other farm animal. The hog is built so compactly 
that there is very little waste in slaughtering, and it will 
eat many kinds of food that could not be disposed of 
otherwise. If hogs are kept in clean quarters and are fed 




Fig. 121. — Chester White hog. 

properly, they are not likely to become diseased. Under 
such conditions, hog raising is a profitable industry. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Make a ration, consisting of skim milk and corn, 
for a young pig weighing from fifty to one himdred 
pounds. 

2. Make a ration, consisting of whey and middlings, 
for a hog weighing two hundred pounds. 

3. A hog weighing one hundred and fifty pounds is 
to be fattened with corn and middlings. Make a ration 
adapted for this purpose. 



37. POULTRY (PI. II., III., IV.). 

The Profit of Poultry Raising. — The importance of the 
poultry business has not been appreciated by the farmers. 
The vakie of the poultry and eggs produced in the United 
States in one year amounts to about one-half billion 
dollars. If proper attention were given to this industry 
on the farm, a much larger profit might be secured. A 
small flock of not to exceed fifty hens, with careful atten- 
tion, will add a considerable amount to the farmer's in- 
come. It often happens that those who are unable to do 
heavy work on the farm may employ their time with 
profit in caring for poultry. 

Breeds of Chickens. — It pays to keep nothing but pure 
bred fowls on the farm. The common or mongrel stock 
will eat just as much and will require just as much care 
as the pure bred stock, and, as a rule, they do not pro- 
duce so well. 

Chickens may be raised chiefly for the eggs which they 
lay. They are then called " egg breeds." They may 
be raised for their flesh. These are called " meat breeds." 
Both of these objects may be served, and the fowl belong 
to the " general purpose " breeds. 

Egg Breeds. — The best known egg breeds are the Leg- 
horn, the Minorca, and the Houdan. 

The Leghorns may be brown, white, black or buff. 
They are rather small, nervous fowls, with large red 
combs and wattles. They are great layers, but they do 
G. & M. Ag. 13. 193 



194 POULTRY 

not sit. The Leghorns should not be kept in close con- 
finement, but should be allowed a large range. 

The Minorcas are either black or white. They, also, 
have large combs. Under proper conditions, they arc 
extra g'ood layers. The flesh is not regarded as the best 
for table use. 

The Hoiidans are beautiful fowls. They have a top- 
knot of feathers on the head and V-shaped combs. They 
have five toes on each foot instead of four, the usual 
number. They are good layers and non-sitters. Were 
it not for the fact that they are rather delicate, and that 
the topknots on the head prevents their seeing danger 
easily, they would be one of the most popular breeds. 

Meat Breeds. — The Brahuias are the most important 
of the meat breeds. The Light Brahmas are the largest 
variety of fowl. They lay large brown eggs, and are 
good sitters. They bear confinement well, and are cjuiet 
in disposition. The legs and toes are heavily feathered. 
The Dark Brahmas are similar to the Light Brahmas, 
but are about one pound lighter in weight. 

The Cochins, of which there are four breeds, — the 
Partridge, Buff, Black, and White, — are the hardiest 
of all the breeds. The feathers are heavy and extend 
down over the toes. The Cochins are good sitters and 
fair layers. 

The Cornisli Indian Games are a distinct meat breed. 
The meat on the breast is plentiful and delicious. They 
are poor layers, but good sitters. 

The General Purpose Breeds. — The Ply moil fh Rocks 
are the most popular class of fowls in America. There 
are three breeds : the Barred, the White, and the Buff. 



POULTRY 



195 



They are hardy, beautiful, good layers, and fairly good 
sitters. The meat is good for table use. 

The U^yandottcs are close to the Plymouth Rocks in 
popularity. Many think them the better fowl for gen- 
eral purposes. They have compact bodies, are fairly 
good sitters and are splendid layers. They lay dark 
eggs and are good table fowls. 

Care of Fowls. — Choose a place for the poultry house 
that shall have good drainage. A southern or south- 
eastern slope is best, so that the fowls may have plenty 
of sunshine, and be protected from the northwest wind. 




Fig. 122. — A good hen-house with shed. 

Build a snug, comfortable house for the chickens to live 
in at night. Houses that are comfortable save much 
grain, and encourage hens to lay in winter. Attached 
to the hen-house should be a larger, more open scratch- 
ing shed. Make this. large enough to furnish about four 
square feet of scratching surface for each hen. The 
scratching shed should open toward the south, so that the 
fowls may get the full benefit of the sunshine. In a 
sunny corner of the shed, a box, filled with fine dust 
scraped from the road in the summer time, should be 
placed. Chickens delight in the dust bath, and it helps 



196 



POULTRY 




Fig. 123. 



- Homemade drinking 
fountain. 



to free them from lice. The floor of the shed should be 
covered with chopped straw or chaff. The grain may 
be thrown in this to give the poultry proper exercise in 
scratching and picking it out. 

Feeding. — As much care should be exercised in feed- 
ing chickens as in feeding a dairy cow. The balanced 

ration will give the best results. 
If the chickens are allowed to 
range over the farm, they will 
usually supply themselves with 
food that has the proper pro- 
portion of egg-forming and of 
fat-forming material. They 
will pick up grain, seeds, in- 
sects, and green blades of grass. When they are kept in 
a yard, these varieties of food should be supplied in proper 
proportions. 

Chickens need plenty of pure water. This should be 
supplied in dishes that are cleaned regularly. A lard 
pail or other can may be filled with water and turned over 
suddenly in a shallow pan or in a flower-pot saucer. A 
little niche or hole near the edge of the pail or can will 
allow the water to flow into the pan or saucer as it is 
needed. 

Poultry should have some green food, vegetables or 
cut grass, grain of some kind, preferably corn, and meat. 
It is necessary that meat be fed to the hens in the winter 
time, if they are expected to lay. The meat furnishes the 
albumen for the eggs. Beets or cabbage heads may be 
hung just out of reach of the poultry, so they must jump 
up to peck at them. This will furnish the green food 



POULTRY 197 

necessary in the winter, as well as giving the poultry 
needed exercise. Cracked oyster shells, crushed glass or 
other forms of grit, should be placed where the chickens 
can get all they want. This helps in the digestion of 
other food, and forms the bones of the poultry and the 
shells of the eggs. 

Parasites. — Poultry are often afflicted with lice and 
with mites. The lice breed on the chickens, and live 
upon them. The mites live in the cracks in the roosts, 
in the nests, and in the walls. They come out in the 
night time and suck the blood of the fowls. To destroy 
the lice, sprinkle the chickens with insect powder fre- 
quently. To destroy the mites, the poultry house should 
be kept thoroughly clean. The entire inside of the house, 
including roosts and boxes, should be washed with coal 
oil every other week. Roosts, boxes, and platforms 
should be made movable, so that they may be taken out 
for thorough cleaning. 



38. DUCKS AND TURKEYS (PI. IV.). 



DUCKS. 



Ducks are easily raised on the farm. They eat much 
food that other animals will not touch. They can be 




Fig. 124. — Pekin ducks. 

raised just as well where there is no swimming pond, 
though they get much food from the pond if they have 
the chance. 

Ducks are hatched best under a hen. She is also the 
best mother for them. Ducklings should not be allowed 
to go into the water for the first ten days. 

198 



DUCKS AND TURKEYS I99 

Breeds of Ducks. — The Pekin dnck is the best chick 
for profit. It is easily kept, is a good layer, and brings 
the highest price in the market. Its white feathers may 
be sold for a good price. 

The Rouen duck is beautifully colored, and is prob- 
ably descended directly from the wild duck, — the 
Mallard. 

The Cayuga is jet black in plumage, and originated in 
New York. 

The Aylcsburg is the favorite English variety. It is 
pure dead white. 

TURKEYS. 

Wild turkeys were quite plentiful in America before 
it was well settled. The turkey on our farms was derived 
from the wild turkey. 

The meat of the turkey is more desired than that of 
any other fowl, and it brings the highest price in the 
market. 

The turkey is of a roving disposition, and does not do 
well when kept in a small enclosure. It is best not to 
attempt to keep turkeys in a poultry house. They thrive 
better when allowed to roost outdoors. 

The turkey hen seeks an out-of-the-way place to lay 
her eggs. She goes far from the house to make her nest 
and to rear her young. Sometimes turkeys go a half a 
mile or more and make their nests in a fence corner or 
in a brush heap. They may be enticed to nest nearer 
home by setting a few boards or an old door against a 
fence corner, and throwing a bunch of hay under it, or 
by placing barrels and boxes with hay in them on the 



200 DUCKS AND TURKEYS 

ground in some secluded spot. The young turkeys, or 
poults, as they are called, are very delicate, and, until 
they are ten or twelve weeks old, they should be cared for 
in coops. They should not be let out of the coop in the 
morning until the dew is off the grass. 

The Bronze Turkey. — This is the largest, the most 
popular, and the most profitable of all the breeds. The 
gobblers weigh about thirty-six pounds, and the turkey 
hens about twenty pounds. This breed furnishes the 
largest part of the turkey meat for Thanksgiving and 
Christmas feasts. 



39. BEE-KEEPING. 



Bees and Flowers. — Every country boy or girl knows 
that honey is gathered from flowers by bees. These lit- 
tle workers fly about from flower to flower, collect the 
honey drop by drop, with wonderful industry and pa- 
tience, and carry it home, where they store it away in 
regular tiers of waxen cells. Then when the weather is 
so cold that they can not leave the home, they have food 
on which to live. Bees do not injure the flowers which 
they visit. On the contrary, they help them to bear more 





Worker. 



Drone. 



Fig. 



Queen. 
. — Honey bees. 

seed and fruit. Our orchards and berry fields yield more 
and better fruit because of the bees. 

Social Life of the Bees. — Wild bees live in hollow 
trees, or sometimes in crevices in rocks; but the honey 
of the market is gathered by tame bees, — that is, by bees 
that are kept on the farm. Bees live in large families or 
colonies, each of which has its queen. Each colony, or, 
as it is more often called, " swarm," lives in its own 
house or " hive," and the bees of one hive are not wel- 
come in another. Each worker bee is armed with a sting, 

201 



202 BEE-KEEPING 

with which to protect its home, but the skilful bee-keeper 
learns to control his bees so that they do not often use 
their stings. 

The Workers, the Queen, and the Drone. — The 
worker bee is the smallest bee in the hive. It takes the 
little scales of wax that form in rings on the abdomen 
and makes the comb. The oil which is made from the 
food eaten by the bee finds its way through the bee's 
body and hardens into waxy scales. It is very interest- 
ing to watch the bee scrape the wax from its abdomen 
and pass it forward to its mouth, where it is chewed. 
The wax is then ready to be made into the six-sided cells 
which make the comb. The workers also fill the cells 
with the honey which they gather from the flowers. 

The cells are not all of the same size. Some are made 
for holding honey; others are for the queen to lay her 
eggs in, and others still are for storing a kind of food 
called beebread. This beebread is a sticky mass that the 
bees make from the pollen which they gather from flow- 
ers. It is of a dark-brown color, and is not sweet to the 
taste. 

The queen bee lays her eggs in three separate sets of 
cells, placing one egg in each cell. In the small cells, 
she lays eggs that are to become the workers ; in the cells 
next larger, she lays the eggs that will become drones 
when they are hatched. Finally, she lays a few eggs in 
some large cells built on the edge of the comb. These 
are called royal cells, and the eggs in them may hatch 
queens if they are furnished with the proper kind of food 
by the workers. 

The drones, as you might think from the name, do not 



BEE-KEEPING 



203 



gather honey; neither do they have stings. They are 
the male bees in the hive, and the workers, after they 
are hatched, drive the drones out of the hive and sting 
them to death if they attempt to return. 

Life in the Hive. — In every hive or colony of bees, 
there are more worker cells than any other kind, for it is 
the busy workers that make up the colony. Among 
these, there are a great many that act as nurses in the 
hive. These nurse bees take charge of the larvae and 
feed them. As the larvre lie curled up in 
their cells, they look like little white worms. 
When they are in need of food, the nurses 
chew some beebread very fine and soft, and 
feed it to them from their own jaws. 
When they have eaten all they want, they 
no longer lie curled up in the cells. When 
the nurses see that these larv?e have 
straightened out their small bodies, they 
put a thin cap of wax over each cell, and 
then each larva spins a silken cocoon about itself and goes 
to sleep in its waxen cradle. 

It takes about twenty-one days for a worker bee to cast 
aside its silken wrap, gnaw open the waxen cover, and 
come out with four thin Avings. It takes about sixteen 
days for the young queens to hatch out; but the ^ drone 
bees are about twenty-four days in hatching. Sometimes 
the workers have to struggle very hard to come forth ; 
but the nurse bees always help the queen bees. 

Many of the honey cells are left open a week or more 
after they are filled ; for the bees will not cap them over 
with wax until they know that the honey in them is 




Fig. 126. — Larva 
of bee. 



204 



BEE-KEEPING 



" ripe," or ready to be sealed up. So it is always easy 
for the young bee to find an open cell where it can eat all 
it wants. 

In a day or two it has the full use of its wings, and 
then away it goes to work with the older bees. It is well 
that it begins its work at once, for the length of a worker 
bee's life is but a few months at most, and some of them 
live only a few weeks. Queen bees, however, have been 
known to live four or five years. 

A great many bees in the hive die during the winter; 
but the queen bee begins to lay her eggs very early in the 
spring, and these eggs hatch out so fast that the number 
in the hive is soon as large as ever. A large number of 
young bees come out of the cells every day during the 
hatching season, which lasts through the warm summer 
months, and thus the hive is always kept full. 

Swarming. — As soon as a queen bee is hatched out, 

the old queen often leaves the hive, and a large number of 

* " ** bees follow her. This 

is called " swarming." 
Should a number of 
young queens be hatched 
out at the same time, 
only one should be per- 
mitted to remain with 
the colony. The others 
should be taken out and 










•Mt^^fk 




Fig. 127. — Beehive. 



put into other hives that have lost their queens, or into 
a newly-formed colony made from a swarm that was 
too large for one hive, for new swarms may be hived 



BEE-KEEPING 



205 



very easily if they have a queen among them to lay the 



eggs. 



^Smam 




If the new queens are not removed as soon as they 
come out of their cells, the ruling queen will seek them 
out, and sting them to death. 

When the bees " swarm," they gather about the queen 
in a black, buzzing mass, and may alight on the limb of a 
tree. As soon as possible, spread out a white cloth under 
the tree. Bees have a very keen sense of sight, and they 
will notice the cloth at once; then put some honeycomb 
into an empty hive, and set the hive down on two small 

blocks upon the white cloth. This 

will give the bees a chance to go 

in at the bottom of the box. If 

they are too long about it, saw off 

,^^^^^ ^ ^ - the limb on which they rest, and 

JB4MMMMM|7 lower it very gently to the ground. 

'^^^H^^RH53|fe These insects have such a strong 

i^SSSS^^i^ sense of smell that they do not 

Hfc^^^^^^4 need to see the honeycomb, for 

1^0kjff!fli^lf^ they can smell it afar off, and will 

soon occupy the cell prepared for 
them. 
Comb Honey and Extracted Honey. — In a modern 
bee-hive, each comb is built by the bees in a movable 
frame, so that the bee-keeper can remove the combs at 
will. After the hive is well stored with honey, small 
frames are connected with the hive for the bees to fill with 
comb and honey. Honey in the cells is called " comb 
honey." 

Sometimes the combs are removed from the hive as 






206 BEE-KEEPING 

fast as they are filled with honey, and placed in a ma- 
chine called a " honey extractor." Here they are caused 
to revolve so rapidly that the honey is driven out of the 
cells. It then appears as a thick liquid like syrup, and is 
called " extracted honey." The combs are then replaced 
in the hive for the bees to fill again with honey. Bees 
do not like to see empty cells in their hive, and they will 
work very hard to fill them. The extracting process, 
therefore, causes bees to make more honey than they 
would if the honey were left in the cells. 

Sources of Honey. — Although many kinds of flowers 
yield some honey, the honey that bees store up in their 
hives is mostly secured from a few kinds. White clover, 
basswood, buckwheat, raspberry and plants of the mint 
family yield the greater part of the honey on the market. 
Crops are not often grown on purpose for bees, as this 
would not generally prove profitable. Honey bees are 
unable to secure the honey from flowers of the red clover. 

Profits in the Business. — In sections- where honey- 
yielding flowers are numerous, and not too many bees 
are kept, bee-keeping may often be made a profitable addi- 
tion to the industries of the farm. The bees gather their 
honey wdierever they can find it, and no one disputes their 
right. Bee-keeping by modern methods requires watch- 
ful care and skilful management. The work connected 
with it is, however, very light, and is readily performed 
by women. With good management, the bees not only 
yield an income to the owner, but are protected from 
their enemies, and sheltered through the winter. Thus 
both the bees and the bee-keeper are benefited. 



40. IMPROVEMENT OF HOME AND 
SCHOOL YARDS. 

Home and School Yards. — It is not enough that our 
farms produce large crops to be sold at good prices and 
that the business be made profitable. We should also 
look to our surroundings. We should have good, com- 
fortable, well-arranged homes, and the grounds about 
them should be made as attractive as possible. We shall 
be better men and women if we live in beautiful sur- 
roundings than if we live in poorly-kept and ugly cjuar- 
ters. Schoolhouses and school yards, too, should be 
made as beautiful as possible. A great many people 
would be glad to have beautiful homes and schoolhouses 
and fine yards if they but knew how to obtain them at 
small cost. School chiklren who are interested can do 
much toward beautifying the entire neighborhood in 
which they live. 

A few general directions are given that may help in 
making our homes and our schools delightful places in 
which to live. 

Make a Plan. — It is well, before attempting any change 

of things as they are, to make a plan. This will make it 

easy to do part of the work this year, to add to it next 

year, and so on until the plan is carried out. Without 

a plan, we may make improvements that we shall find do 

207 



208 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



not lend beauty to our surroundings, and our work will 
be entirely lost. Do not make a very complex plan. A 
simple one, with few details, is much better. 

Natural Features. — Many places have some natural 
features that aid in the work of beautifying them. A 
clump of trees, a small hill, a stream of water, or a pond, 
found on the place, should be used in the plan you make. 
Do not try to get rid of such things, but lay out a plan 
that will use them to the best advantage. 





Fig. 129. — A problem in landscape gardening. 

The House the Important Part. — The house should 
usually be the most important part of the plan. It need 
not be in the middle of the lot, but other things should be 
so grouped about it as to set it off. So often we see a 
house rising boldly from the center of a yard, with no 
adornment whatever. Here we see such a house in all 
its loneliness. It looks cheerless, and no amount of 
money spent on it will make it look homelike, unless the 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



209 



shrubbery, the trees, and the yard in general are planned 
to make the house a part of the whole. 







Fig. 130. — A solution of the problem in figure 129. 

In Figure 130, the house is made a part of the general 
out-of-door plan. 




v.; 1.1 












Fig. 131. — Evergreen trees should not be trimmed. (P. 212.) 
G. & M. Ag. 14. 



2IO 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Open Front Yards. — Very often we find that the yard 
in front of a house is filled with shrubbery or with flower 
beds. It is far better to leave the space in front of the 
house entirely open. The house is then shown to much 
better advantage, and the yard is much more easily cared 
for. There is nothing much more pleasing than a well- 
kept front lawn. 



O- '*-. C s>.l' atl! »-. *.. 'St., «L ' '»- 
cs_ *_ *.. IIL <», >«.. «^ *-.' *3^ **.. 
el^eL. <*..4.'«L, «- «*- •*. ^'*. 
i«.. al 9l wlf* % .% *. ^ 









i?#'^r^?'^ 








Fig. 132.^ Too many straight paths. 

Shrubbery and Flowers. — The shrubbery should be 
arranged in masses, and not as shrubs placed singly. Let 
the branches grow together thickly, so as to make a mass 
of green. These masses should be placed on the border 
of the yard. With the flowers, they make a very fine 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



211 



frame for the " picture " we are trying to make. Shrubs 
may be placed, also, so as to hide outbuildings or to form 
a screen for the backyard. 

Flowers may be planted close to the house or just in 
front of the shrubbery. They should not be planted in 
separate flower beds in the lawn. 

Vines. — Vines may be used to cover old fences, or to 



,,'%i,<v,<vff.,t*...'iu, ,<»..,«.,,«,. a,,.. 



^. tv. 4, <\ a. «L. *;. «!.. -^ flL. I 

;i_^ *^_ o^ »„ Si. <i <it «. ^ *. I BARN Y A 

a. «^ 9, «, «L «L * « « <?. I 

a. <t » » «». 4. %. (1 * «. 

«»^ <? % «t *i. '*- ^ *. E '*.. 
.". Q-.?..'?-!:!-^--f?-B i- 




iMiiiiinjiMjmn«iimijniM»Hra«iiuiiiiorayrtjiH 




MAIN 



^ 



«... 



Fig. 133. — Suggestion for improving the plan of paths shown in figure 132. 

clamber over old or unpainted buildings, wath very good 
effect. With vines alone, an unpleasing place may be 
changed to a very beautiful one. Vines are also useful 
in helping to make the house a part of the "picture." 
Trees. — Trees may be planted in groups about the 



212 LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

yard. They should be placed so as to be of some use, 
either in giving shade or in forming a wind break. Ever- 
green trees and hard wood trees should not be planted in 
the same group. If evergreen trees are planted, they 
should not be trimmed and the lower branches should not 
be cut. They look much prettier in their natural con- 
dition (Figure 131). 

Paths. — There should be as few paths as possible 
made, and these should be placed so that they will be the 
most convenient. Care should be taken to avoid straight 
lines in laying out the paths. Sometimes a straight path 
is necessary from the street to the house, but, when it is 
possible, the paths should be made on large easy curves. 

Barns and Other Buildings. — It is not easy to tell just 
where and how the barns, stables, granaries and other 
farm buildings should be placed. Much depends upon 
local conditions. 

The barns and stables should not be placed very close 
to the house, but at such a distance that the barnyard 
odors and the flies will not be troublesome. The gar- 
den, however, may be placed quite near the house, so that 
it may be easily tended and watched. 

If the barns and stables are built in the form of a hol- 
low square, with one side left open, it will give protection 
against the winds in winter and will furnish shade in 
summer. 

School Yards. — The school yards should be models for 
the whole community. Even if the schoolhouse is not 
a fine building, it may be made very attractive by im- 
provements. The principles of landscape gardening 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



213 



which have been given for homes apply also to school 
yards. 

In the country, where land is cheap, there is no reason 
why the school should not be supplied with a large plot of 
land. This will furnish room for a lawn and for a good- 
sized play ground. In many places, also, one part of 
the school ground may be set apart for a school garden, 
where plants of different kinds may be raised and where 
the principles of plant growth may be taught. Unless 




■*•»•« ^~r.i » 



Fig. 134. — A bare school yard. 1 

some arrangement is made for the care of the school 
garden during the summer vacation, however, it is likely 
to become a garden of weeds. 

The picture shown in Figure 134 is a very common 
one, much more common than it should be. Notice how 
bare and cheerless it is. 

In Figure 135, we see what has been done with the 



214 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



school yard to make it attractive and homelike. The 
teacher and the pupils in the school did all the work, and, 
with no expense, made this wonderful improvement. The 
shrubbery and trees were obtained by the boys from the 
woods. Flower seeds and bulbs were given by the par- 
ents, and were planted by the girls, under the direction of 
the teacher. All worked together to make the school yard 
beautiful, and were very proud of the result. 



=?i 



r=% 



"4 ^ 







Fig. 135.- — A suggestion in planting. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Make a general plan for the improvement of your 
school grounds, observing carefully the suggestions given. 

2. Make a plan for the improvement of the yards 
about your home, allowing buildings, fences, and trees to 
remain as they are at present. 

3. Make a plan for the improvement of your home 
yards, making such changes in the location of buildings, 
fences, and trees as you think best. 



APPENDIX. 



FODDER TABLES. 





>, 




cj 


>> 




6 


>-, 




u 


>^ 






Pounds 




.5 


.' <u 




a 


S"" 


13 


.s 


J3 . 




.S 


k'" 


of 
Fodder 


1h 


o 




^ 4) 

a S 


'v 

o 




a *-' 


'v 

*-* 
o 


o ^ 




'v 

o 


o w 




O c^ 


u 


r3 ., 


^B 


u 


rt 2 


O nj 


;_ 


« 2 


o ra 


u 


« 2 




H £ 


(^ 


•J -a 


Ph 


u-S 


H E 


Ph 


u-S 


H E 


Ph 


u-S 


Grasses 


Pasture Grass, 
1:4.8 


Timothy Grass, 
1:14.3 


Red Top 
Grass, 
1:14.6 


Kentucky 

Blue Grass, 

1:9.2 


25 


O.G 


3.06 


0.3 


1.0 


0.0-: 


0.5 


o.r 


0.03 


0.5 


0.9 


0.05 


0.5 


5 


1.0 


0.12 


0.6 


1.9 


o.cs 


1.1 


1.7 


0.07 


1.0 


1.8 


O.IC 


0.9 


10 


li.O 


0.23 


1.1 


3.8 


0.15 


2.1 


3.5 


0.13 


1.9 


3.5 


0.20 


1.8 


15 


3.0 


0.35 


1.7 


5.8 


0.23 


3.2 


5.- 


0.20 


2.D 


5.2 


0.30 


2.7 


20 


4.0 


0.46 


*> •) 


7.7 


0.30 


4.3 


6.!' 


0.26 


3.8 


7.0 


0.40 


3.7 


25 


5.0 


0.5S 


2^8 


9.6 


0.38 


5.4 


8.7 


0.33 


4.8 


8.7 


0.50 


4.7 


30 


6.0 


0.69 


3.3 


11.5 


0.45 


6.4 


10.4 


0.39 


5.7 


10.5 


0.60 


5.5 


35 


7.0 


O.Sl 


3.9 


13.4 


0.53 


7.5 


12.1 


0.46 


6.7 


12.2 


0.70 


6.4 


40 


s.o 


0.92 


4.4 


15.4 


0.60 


8.6 


13.9 


0.52 


7.'"; 


14.0 


0.80 


7.3 


Grasses and 
Green Fodders 


Alfalfa, 
1:3.6 


Green Fodder 
Corn, 
1:11.7 


Sweet Fodder 
Corn, 
1:11.3 


Green Barley 

Fodder, 

1:5.7 


21 


0.5 


0.10 


0.4 


0.5 


0.03 


0.3 


0.5 


0.03 


0.3 


0.6 


o.oc 


0.3 


5 


1.0 


0.20 


0.7 


1.0 


0.06 


0.6 


1.0 


O.OG 


0.7 


1.2 


0.12 


0.7 


10 


1.9 


0.41 


1.4 


2.1 


0.11 


1.3 


2.1 


0.12 


1.4 


2.5 


0.24 


1.4 


15 


2.9 


0.61 


'» '> 


3.1 


0.17 


1.9 


3.1 


0.18 


2.1 


3.7 


0.36 


2.1 


20 


3.9 


O.Sl 


2!9 


4.1 


0.22 


2.6 


4.2 


0.24 


2.7 


5.0 


0.48 


2.7 


25 


4.S 


1.02 


3.6 


5.2 


0.28 


3.2 


5.2 


0.30 


3.4 


6.2 


0.60 


3.4 


30 


5.S 


1.23 


4.4 


6.2 


0.33 


3.9 


6.3 


0.36 


4.1 


7.4 


0.72 


4.1 


35 


6.8 


1.44 


5.1 


7.2 


0.39 


4.5 


7.3 


0.42 


4.8 


8.7 


0.S4 


4.8 


40 


7.7 


1.64 


5.8 


8.3 


0.44 


5.2 


8.4 


0.4S 


r..4 


9.9 


0.9C 


5.4 


Green 

Fodders 


Green Oat 


Green Rye 


Green Hun- 


Oats and 


Fodder, 


Fodder, 


garian, 


Peas, 




1:8.7 


1:7.3 


1:8.7 


1:4.3 


21 


O.i: 


O.Ob 


0.5 


O.C 


0.05 


0.4 


0.7 


0.'^5 


0.4 


0.5 


0.07 


0.3 


5 


1.9 


0.12 


1.0 


1.2 


0.11 


0.7 


1.4 


0.10 


C.8 


1.1 


0.14 


0.5 


10 


3.S 


0.2-: 


2.1 


2.3 


0.21 


1.5 


2.9 


0.20 


1.7 


2.1 


0.27 


1.1 


15 


5.7 


0.33 


3.1 


3.5 


0.32 


2.3 


4.3 


0.30 


2.G 


3.2 


0.41 


1.7 


20 


7.6 


0.48 


4.2 


4.7 


0.42 


3.0 


5.8 


0.40 


3.5 


4.3 


0.54 


2.3 


25 


9.5 


O.CO 


5 2 


5.9 


0.52 


3.S 


7.2 


0.50 


4.3 


5.3 


0.68 


2.9 


30 


11.3 


0.72 


6!2 


7.0 


0.63 


4.5 


8.7 


0.60 


5.2 


6.4 


0.81 


3.4 


35 


13.2 


0.84 


7.3 


8.2 


0.74 


5.3 


10.1 


0.70 


6.1 


7.5 


0.95 


4.0 


40 


lo.l 


0.96 


8.3 


9.4 


0.84 


6.0 


11.6 


0.80 


6.9 


8.5 


1.08 


4.6 



215 



2l6 



APPENDIX 



Pounds 

of 
Fodder 


•V 

O " 

H E 


'v 

o 


u-5 




c 
o 

u 

Oh 


o tn 


•V 
u 

O rt 


o 
u 

Ph 


O VI 


u 
•a 

+J -*H 

o rt 
H B 


■4H 

o 

U 


o 

Ut3 


Green 


Barley and 


Red Clover 


Alsike Clover 


Green Clover 


Fodders 


Peas, 
1:3.2 


(green), 

1:5.7 


(green), 
1:5.3 


Rowen, 

1:4.2 


^i 


0.5 


0.07 


0.2 


0.7 


0.07 


0.4 


0.6 


0.07 


0.3 


0.6 


07 


0.3 


5 


1.0 


0.14 


0.4 


1.5 


0.15 


0.8 


1.; 


0.1.' 


0.7 


1.? 


0.14 


0.6 


10 


2.1 


0.28 


0.9 


2.9 


0.29 


1.6 


2.5 


0.26 


1.4 


2.5 


0.29 


1.2 


15 


3.1 


0.42 


1.4 


4.4 


0.44 


2.5 


3.S 


0..3fl 


2.1 


3.S 


0.44 


1.6 


20 


4.1 


0.56 


1.8 


5.9 


0.5S 


3.3 


5.( 


0..52 


2.S 


5.0 


0.5S 


2.4 


25 


5.2 


0.70 


2.3 


7.3 


0.73 


4.1 


6.3 


0.65 


3.5 


6.3 


0.73 


3.0 


30 


6.2 


0.84 


2.7 


8.8 


0.87 


4.9 


7.6 


0.78 


4.2 


7.5 


0.87 


3.6 


35 


7.2 


0.98 


3.2 


10.2 


1.02 


5.7 


8.8 


0.9] 


4.9 


S.S 


1.02 


4.2 


40 


S.2 


1.12 


3.6 


11.7 


1.16 


6.6 


10.1 


1.04 


5.6 


10.0 


1.16 


4.8 




Corn Silage 


Corn Silage 


Corn Stover 


Clover Silage, 

1:4.7 


Silages 


(mature), 


(immature), 


Silage, 




1:14.8 


1:14.6 


1:16.6 


2i 


0.7 


0.03 


0.4 


0.5 


0.02 


3 


0.5 


0.02 


0.3 


0.7 


0.07 


0.3 


5 


1.3 


0.06 


o.s 


1.0 


0.05 


0,6 


1.0 


0.03 


0.5 


1.4 


0.14 


0.6 


10 


2.6 


0.12 


l.S 


2.1 


0.09 


1,3 


1.9 


0.06 


1.0 


2.8 


0.ii7 


1.3 


15 


3.9 


0.18 


2.7 


3.1 


0.14 


1.9 


2 9 


0.09 


1.5 


4.2 


0.41 


1.9 


20 


5.3 


0.24 


3.6 


4.2 


0.18 


2.6 


3.9 


0.12 


2.0 


5.6 


0.54 


2.6 


25 


6.6 


CSO 


4.5 


5.2 


0.23 


O. - 


4.8 


0.15 


2.5 


7.0 


0.68 


3.2 


30 


7.9 


0.36 


5.3 


6.8 


0.27 


3.9 


5.8 


0.18 


3.0 


8.4 


0.81 


3.9 


35 


9.2 


0.42 


6.2 


7.3 


0.32 


4.5 


6.8 


0.21 


3.5 


9.8 


0.95 


4.5 


40 


10.5 


0.48 


7.1 


8.4 


0.36 


5.2 


7.7 


0.24 


4.0 


11.2 


1.08 


5.1 


Roots 


Potatoes, 


Beets, 


Sugar Beets, 


Carrots, 


1:17.3 


1:6.5 


1:6.8 


1:9.6 


2J 


0,5 


0.02 


0.4 


0.3 


0.04 


0.2 


0.3 


0.04 


0.3 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


5 


1.1 


0.05 


0.8 


0.6 


0.07 


0.5 


0.7 


0.08 


0.5 


0.5 


0.05 


0.5 


10 


2.1 


0.09 


1.6 


1.2 


0.14 


0.9 


1.4 


0.16 


1.1 


1.1 


0.10 


1.0 


15 


3.2 


0.14 


2.3 


1.7 


0.21 


1.4 


2.0 


0.24 


1.7 


1.6 


0.15 


1.4 


20 


4.2 


0.18 


3.1 


2.3 


0.2S 


l.S 


2.7 


0.32 


9 


2.3 


0.20 


1.9 


25 


5.3 


0.23 


3.9 


2.9 


0..35 


2.3 


3.4 


0.40 


2.7 


2.9 


3.25 


2.4 


30 


6.3 


0.27 


4.7 


3.5 


0.42 


2.7 


4.1 


0.48 


3.3 


3.4 


).30 


2.9 


35 


7.4 


0.32 


5.4 


4.0 


0.49 


3.2 


4.7 


0.56 


3.S 


4.0 


0.35 


3.4 


40 


8.4 


0.36 


6.2 


4.6 


0.56 


3.6 


5.4 


0.64 


4.4 


4.6 


0.40 


3.8 


Roots and 


Mangel Wurt- 
zels, 
1:4.9 


Ruta-bagas, 


Turnips, 


Skim Milk, 


Milk 


1:8.6 


1:7.7 


1:2.0 


2i 


0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


0.2 


0.07 


0.1 


5 


0.4 


0.06 


0.3 


O.b 


0.05 


0.4 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


5 


0,15 


0.3 


10 


0.9 


0.11 


0.5 


1.1 


0.10 


0.9 


1.0 


0.10 


0.8 


9 


0.29 


0.6 


15 


1.4 


0.17 


O.S 


1.6 


0.15 


1.3 


1.4 


0.15 


1.2 


1 4 


0.44 


0.9 


20 


l.S 


0.22 


1.1 


2.3 


0.20 


1.7 


1.9 


0.20 


1.5 


1 9 


0,58 


1.2 


25 


2.3 


0.28 


1.4 


2.9 


0.25 


■> 


2.4 


0.25 


1.9 


2.4 


0.73 


1.6 


30 


2.7 


0.33 


1.6 


3.4 


0.30 


2.6 


2.9 


0.30 


2.3 


2.S 


0.87 


1.8 


35 


3.2 


0.39 


1.9 


4.0 


0.35 


3.0 


3.3 


0.35 


2.7 


3 ?. 


1.02 


2.1 


40 


3.6 


0.44 


2.2 


4.6 


0.40 


3.4 


3.8 


0.40 


3.1 


3.7 


1.16 


2.4 



FODDER TABLES 



217 



Pounds 


>> 

t-i 
•0 


c 







c 


cJ 

■4-* 


-0 


C3 



ja - 


T3 


c 




of 
Fodder 


"Si! 

rt 



■*-* 



"1 


^ 





« 


3S 

rt 




t-l 




rt 









HE 


Cl, 


U-a 


H a 


Ph 


u43 


H a 


Ph 


U-ia 


H B 


CL, 


U-a 




Buttermilk, 


Whey, 






Milk 


1:1.7 


1:8.7 






2i 

5 

10 

15 

, 20 

25 


0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 


0.10 
0.19 
0.3S 
0.57 
0.76 
0.95 


0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 


0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 


0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 


0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 
1.3 










































































30 


3.0 


1.14 


1.9 


1.9 


0.18 


1.6 


• . 






.... 






35 


3.5 


1.33 


9 9 


2.2 


0.21 


1.8 














40 


4.0 


1.52 


2.6 


2.5 


0.24 


2.1 














Hays 


Mixed Hay, 


Timothy Hay, 


Red Top Hay, 


Kentucky Blue 


1:10.0 


1:16.5 


1:10.3 


Grass Hay, 










1:10.6 


2i 


2.1 


0.11 


1 1 


2.2 


0.07 


1.2 


2.3 


0.12 


1.2 


1.9 


0.09 


1.0 


5 


4.2 


?:?. 


2 ?. 


4.3 


0.14 


2.3 


4.6 


0.24 


2.4 


3.7 


0.19 


2.0 


7J 


6.4 


0,33 


3 3 


6.5 


0.21 


3.5 


6.8 


0.36 


3.6 


5.6 


0.28 


3.0 


10 


8.5 


0,44 


4 4 


8.7 


0.28 


4.6 


9.1 


0.48 


4.9 


7.4 


0.3V 


3.9 


12J 


10.6 


0..W 


5 5 


10.9 


0.35 


5.8 


11.4 


0.60 


6.2 


9.2 


0.46 


4.9 


15 


12.7 


0,66 


6 6 


13.0 


0.42 


6.9 


13.9 


0.V2 


V.4 


11.1 


0.56 


5.9 


m 


14 S 


0,77 


7 7 


15.2 


0.49 


8.1 


16.0 


0.84 


8.6 


13.0 


0.65 


6.9 


20 


16.9 


0,88 


8 S 


17.4 


0.56 


9.2 


18.2 


0.9(: 


9.8 


14.8 


0.74 


7.9 


25 


21.2 


1.10 


11.0 


21.7 


0.70 


11.6 


22.8 


1.20 


12.3 


18.5 


0.93 


9.9 


Hays and 
Dry Fodder 


Rowen Hay 
(mixed), 

1:5.0 


Rowen Hay 

(fine), 
1:4.7 


Alfalfa Hay, 
1:3.8 


Corn Fodder, 
1:14.3 


2i 


2,1 


0.20 


1,1 


9 9 


0.24 


1.1 


2.3 


0.28 


1.1 


1.4 


0.06 


0.9 


5 


4.2 


0.40 


2,3 


4.3 


0.49 


2.3 


4.6 


0.55 


2.1 


2.9 


0.13 


1.8 


7i 


6,3 


0.60 


3,4 


6.5 


0.73 


3.4 


6.9 


0.83 


3.2 


4.3 


0.19 


2.7 


10 


8.3 


0.80 


4,5 


8.7 


0.97 


4.6 


9.2 


1.10 


4.2 


5.8 


0.25 


3.6 


12J 


10.4 


1.00 


5,6 


10.9 


1.21 


5.7 


11.5 


i.3r 


5.3 


7.2 


0.32 


4.5 


15 


12,5 


1.20 


6.7. 


13.0 


1.46 


6.8 


13.7 


1.6.^) 


6.4 


8.7 


0.38 


5.4 


17i 


14,6 


1.40 


7.8* 


15.2 


1.70 


8.0 


16.0 


1.93 


7.4 


10.1 


0.44 


6.2 


20 


16,7 


1.60 


8.9 


17.4 


1.94 


9.1 


18.3 


2.20 


8.5 


11.6 


0.50 


7.1 


25 


20.9 


3.00 


11.2 


21.7 


2.43 


11.4 


22.9 


2.75 


10.6 


14.5 


0.63 


8.9 


Dry Fodders 


Corn Stover, 


Oat Hay, 


Oat and Pea 
Hay, 
1:4.9 


Hungarian, 


and Hays 


1:23.6 


1:9.9 


1:10.0 


2i 


1.5 


0.04 


0.8 


2.3 


0.10 


1.0 


•"> 


0.28 


1.2 


2.1 


0.12 


1.2 


5 


3.0 


O.OV 


1.7 


4.6 


0.21 


2.0 


4.4 


0..56 


2.3 


4.2 


0.25 


2.4 


7i 


4.5 


0.11 


2.5 


6.8 


0.31 


3.0 


6.6 


0.84 


3.5 


6.3 


0.37 


3.6 


10 


6.0 


0.14 


3.3 


9.1 


0.41 


4.0 


8.9 


1.12 


4.6 


8.4 


0.49 


4.9 


125 


V.5 


0.18 


4.1 


11.4 


0.51 


5.1 


11.1 


1.40 


5.8 


10.4 


0.62 


6.2 


15 


9.0 


0.21 


5.0 


13.7 


0.62 


6.1 


i:?.3 


1.68 


6.9 


12.5 


0.74 


7.4 


17J 


10.5 


0.25 


5.8 


16.0 


0.72 


7.1 


15.5 


1.96 


8.1 


14.6 


0.86 


8.6 


20 


12.0 


0.28 


6.6 


18.2 


0.82 


8.1 


17.7 


2.24 


9.2 


16.7 


0.98 


9.8 


25 


15.0 


0.35 


8.3 


22.8 


1.03 


10.2 


22.1 


2.80 


11.6 


20.9 


1.23 


12.3 



2l8 



APPENDIX 



Pounds 

of 
Fodder 


u 

•si! 








.s 

'5 


o 

-^ id 


1- 

•V 

u 
— u 






u 
u 


c 
'S 


■J 






o 


Ut3 




o 


^ la 




o 


^ rt 


■a t! 


o 


'- a 


Feed 


o rt 




H E 




« 2 


HE 


u 


U-T3 


HE 


Oh 


U-5 


Hays and 
Straw 


Red Clover 
Hay, 
1:5.9 


Alsike Clover 
Hay, 
1:5.5 


Clover Rowen 
Hay, 
1:4.9. 


Barley Straw, 
1:61.0 


21 


2.1 


O.IS 


1.0 


2.3 


0.21 


1.2 


2.3 


0.21 


1.0 


2.1 


0.02 


1.1 


5 


4.2 


0.36 


2.1 


4.5 


0.42 


2.3 


4.6 


0.43 


2.1 


4.3 


0.04 


2.1 


71 


fi.4 


0.53 


3.2 


6.8 


0.63 


3.5 


6.9 


0.64 


3.2 


6.4 


0.05 


3.2 


10 


.S.5 


0.71 


4.2 


9.0 


0.S4 


4.6 


9.2 


0.85 


4.2 


8.6 


0.07 


4.3 


12i 


10.6 


0.89 


5.2 


11.3 


1.05 


5.8 


11.5 


1.07 


5.2 


10.7 


0.09 


5.3 


15 


12.V 


1.07 


6.3 


13.5 


1.26 


6.9 


13.8 


1.28 


6.3 


12.9 


0.11 


6.4 


17i 


14.8 


1.24 


7.3 


15.8 


1.47 


8.1 


16.0 


1.49 


7.3 


15.0 


0.12 


7.5 


20 


16.9 


1.42 


S.3 


18.1 


1.68 


9.^ 


18.3 


1.70 


8.3 


17.2 


0.14 


8.5 


25 


21.2 


1.78 


10.5 


22.6 


2.10 


11.6 


22.9 


2.13 


10.5 


21.5 


0.18 


10.7 


Straws 


Oat Straw, 


Wheat Straw, 


Rye Straw, 




1:38.3 


1:93.0 


1:69.0 




2J 
5 

10 

125 

15 

17i 

20 

25 


2.3 

4.6 

6.8 

9.1 

11.4 

13.9 

16.0 

18.2 

22.7 


0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 


1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.5 


2.3 

4.5 

6.8 

9.0 

11.3 

13.5 

15.8 

18.1 

22.6 


0.01 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
0.10 


0.9 
1.9 

2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 


2.3 

4.6 

7.0 

9.3 

11.6 

13.9 

16.3 

18.6 

•23.2 


0.02 
0.03 
0.05 
0.06 
0.08 
0.09 
0.11 
0.12 
0.15 


1.0 
2.1 
3.1 

4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
8.3 
10.4 
























































Grains 


Corn Meal, 
1:11.3 


Corn and Cob 
Meal, 
1:13.9 


Oats, 

1:6.2 


Provender 

(^ Vz) 

1:8.4 


1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.2 


0,01 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


i 


0.4 


0.03 


0.4 


0.4 


0,02 


0.3 


0,4 


0.05 


0.3 


0.4 


0.04 


0.3 


1 


0.9 


0.06 


0.7 


0.9 


0,05 


0.7 


0.9 


0.09 


0.6 


0.9 


0.C8 


0.6 


2 


1.7 


0.13 


1.4 


1.7 


0.10 


1.3 


1.8 


0.18 


1.1 


1.7 


0.15 


1.3 


3 


2.6 


0.19 


2.1 


2.6 


0.14 


2.0 


2.7 


0.28 


1.7 


2.6 


0.23 


1.9 


4 


3.4 


0.f^5 


2.9 


3.4 


0.19 


2.7 


3.6 


0.37 


2.3 


3.5 


0.31 


2.6 


5 


4.3 


0.,32 


3.6 


4.3 


24 


3.4 


4.5 


0.46 


2.8 


4.4 


0.39 


3.2 


7i 


6.4 


0.48 


5.4 


6.4 


36 


5.1 


6.7 


0.69 


4.3 


6.5 


0.58 


4.9 


10^ 


8.5 


0.63 


7.1 


8.5 


48 


6.7 


8.9 


0.92 


5.7 


8.7 


0.77 


6.5 


Grains and 


Provender (as 
sold in New 


Oat Hulls, 


Quaker Dairy 
Feed, 
1:4.6 


H. O. Dairy 
Feed, 
1:3.3 


By-products 


England), 
1:9.4 


1:18.2 


i 


0.2 


0.0- 


0.2 


0.2 


0.01 


0.1 


0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


h 


0,4 


0,03 


0.3 


0.5 


0.02 


0.3 


0.5 


0.05 


0.3 


0.5 


o.ov 


0.2 


1 


9 


0,07 


0.6 


0.9 


0.03 


0.5 


0.9 


0.11 


0.5 


0.9 


0.15 


0.5 


2 


1.8 


0.14 


1.3 


1.9 


0.05 


0.9 


1.8 


0.22 


1.0 


1.8 


0.29 


1.0 


3 


2.7 


o.?o 


1.9 


2.8 


0.08 


1.4 


2.8 


0.33 


1.5 


2.7 


0.44 


1.5 


4 


.S.5 


0.27 


3.5 


3.7 


0.10 


1.9 


3.7 


0.44 


2.0 


3.6 


0.59 


2.0 


5 


4.4 


0.34 


3.2 


4.6 


0.13 


2.4 


4.6 


0..55 


2.5 


4.6 


0.V4 


2.5 


7i 


6.6 


0.51 


4.8 


7.0 


0.20 


3.5 


6.9 


0.82 


3.8 


6.8 


1.1(1 


3.7 


10 


8.8 


0.68 


6.4 


9.3 


0.26 


4.7 


9.2 


1.09 


5.0 


9.1 


1.4/ 


4.9 



FODDER TABLES 



219 





>> 




U 




B 


>. 




d 


>> 




4-> 


Pounds 


u 


c 




U. 


3 x; . 


•a 


c 


J3 . 


■v 


c 


J3 . 


of 
Feed 


rt 


(LI 


u 




•^5 '5 .2S 


a 




i-i 


^ 

" 1-. 


2 









EthE 


C^ 


U-a 


H S Ph u-S 


H E 


CLi 


u43 


H E 


Oh 


U-o 


By-products, 
etc. 


Victor Corn 

and Oat Feed, 

1:10.1 


H. 0. Horse 
1:6.4 


Barley, 
1:8.0 


Barley Screen- 
ings, 
1:7.7 


i 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.20. 


02 0.1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


i 


0.5 


0.03 


0.3 


0.5 0.051 0.3 


0.4 


0.04 


0.3 


0.4 


0.04 


0.3 


1 


O.I) 


0.06 


0.6 


0.90. 


09 0.6 


0.9 


0.09 


0.7 


0.9 


O.Oit 


0.7 


■> 


1.8 


0.13 


1.3 


1.80. 


IS 1.2 


1.8 


0.17 


1.4 


1.8 


0.17 


1.3 


3 


2.7 


0.19 


1.9 


2.70. 


28 1.8 


2.7 


0.26 


2.1 


2.6 


0.26 


2.0 


4 


3. (J 


0.25 


2.5 


3.60. 


37 2.4 


3.6 


0..35 


2.S 


3.5 


0.34 


2.7 


5 


4.r. 


0.32 


3.2 


4.50.461 2.9 


4.5 


0.44 


3.5 


4.4 


0.43 


3.3 


n 


6.S 


0.47 


4.8 


6.80. 


69 4.4 


6.7 


0.65 


5.2 


6.6 


0.65 


5.0 


10 


9.0 


0.63 


6.4 


9.00 


92 5.9 


8.9 


0.87 


6.9 


8.8 


0.86 


6.6 




Wheat Bran, 
1-3 8 


Wheat Mid- 


Wheat Screen- 


Mixed (Wheat 


By-products 


dlings, 


ings, 


Feed), 






1:4.6 


1:5.2 


1:3.9 


X 


0.2 


0,03 


0,1 


0.20. 


03 0.1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


X 


0.4 


0.06 


0.2 


0.40. 


06 0.3 


0.4 


0.05 


0.2 


0.4 


0.07 


0.3 


1 


0.9 


0.12 


0.5 


0.90. 


13 0.6 


0.9 


0.10 


0.5 


0.9 


0.13 


0.5 


2 


l.S 


0.24 


1 ,0 


1.80. 


25 1.2 


1.8 


0.20 


1.0 


1.8 


0.27 


1.0 


3 


2.6 


0.36 


1.4 


2.60. 


38 1.7 


2.7 


0.29 


1.5 


2.7 


0.40 


1.5 


4 


3.5 


0.4S 


1.8 


3.50. 


50 2.3 


3.5 


0.39 


2.0 


3.6 


0.53 


2.1 


5 


4.4 


0.60 


2.3 


4.4 0. 


63 2.9 


4.4 


0.49 


2.5 


4.5 


0.6V 


2.6 


7J 


6.6 


0.90 


3.4 


6.60. 


94 4.4 


6.6 


0.74 


3.8 


6.7 


1.00 


3.8 


10 


8.8 


1.20 


4.6 


8.S 1. 


25 5.8 


8. 8 


0.98 


5.1 


S.9 


1.33 


5.2 


By-products, 
etc. 


Red-Dog 
Flour, 
1:3.3 


Rye, 
1:7.8 


Rye Bran, 
1:5.1 


Cottonseed 
Meal, 
1:1.0 


i 


0.2 


0,04 


0.1 


0.20. 


02 0.2 


0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


0.2 


0.10 


0.1 


h 


0.5 


0.09 


0.3 


0.4 0. 


04 0.3 


0.4 


0.06 


0.3 


0.5 


0.20 


0.2 


1 


0.9 


0,18 


0.6 


0.9 0. 


09 0.7 


0.9 


0.12 


0.6 


.0.9 


0.40 


0.4 


2 


1.8 


0,36 


1.2 


1.80. 


18 1.4 


l.S 


0.25 


1.3 


l.S 


0.80 


0.8 


3 


2.7 


0,,53 


1.7 


2.7 0. 


27 2.1 


2.7 


0..37 


1.9 


2.8 


1.20 


1.2 


4 


3.6 


0.71 


2.3 


3.50. 


36 2.8 


3.5 


0.49 


2.5 


3.7 


1.60 


1.6 


5 


4.6 


0.89 


2.9 


4.40. 


46 3.5 


4.4 


0.62 


3.1 


4.6 


2.00 


2.0 


7i 


6.S 


1.34 


4.4 


6.60. 


67 5.2 


6.6 


0.92 


4.7 


6.9 


3.00 


3.0 


10 


9.1 


1.78 


5.8 


8.80. 


89 6.9 


8.8 


1.23 


6.3 


9.2 


4.00 


4.0 




Cottonseed 


Cottonseed 


Linseed Meal 


Linseed Meal 


By-products 


Feed, 


Hulls, 


(0. P.), 


(N. P.), 




1:5.6 




1:1.5 


1:1.3 




i 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


0.2 .. 


.. 0.1 


0.2 


0.08 


0.1 


0.2 


0.08 


0.1 


i 


0.4 


0.04 


0.2 


0.4 .. 


.. 0.2 


0.5 


0.15 


0.2 


0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


1 


0.9 


o.os 


0.4 


0.9 .. 


.. 0.4 


0.9 


0.31 


0.5 


0.9 


0.32 


0.4 


2 


1.8 


0.16 


0.9 


1.8 .. 


.. 0.7 


1.8 


0.62 


1.0 


1.8 


0.65 


0.8 


3 


2.7 


0.24 


1.3 


2.7 .. 


.. 1.1 


2.7 


0.92 


1.4 


2.7 


0.9Y 


1.3 


4 


3.5 


0.32 


l.S 


3.6 .. 


.. 1.5 


3.6 


1.23 


1.8 


3.6 


1.30 


1.7 


5 


4.4 


0.40 


') 


4.5 .. 


.. 1.8 


4.9 


1.54 


2.3 


4.5 


1.62 


2.1 


U 


6.6 


0..59 


3.3 


6.7 .. 


.. 2.7 


6.S 


2.. 31 


3.4 


6.7 


2.43 


3.2 


10 


8.8 


0.79 


4.4 


8.9 .. 


.. 3.7 


0.0 


3.08 


4.6 


8.9 


3.24 


4.2 



220 



APPENDIX 





>. 




o 

4-* 


>% 




d 


>> 




d 


>. 




B 


Pounds 

of 

Feed 


-a 


'Z 


o t« 


^ (L) 

rt 4-* 






■a 
-:3 ^ 


a 


Is 


u 


.s 


|s 




H E 


o 

u 

Q-i 


u-5 


O rt 

H E 


o 
u 


S3 rt 


O rt 

H E 


o 


,«2 


O rt 

H E 


o 






Flax Meal. 


Gluten Meal 


Gluten Meal 


Gluten Meal 


By-products 


1:1.4 


(Chicago), 


(Cream), 


(King), 






1:1.5 


1:1.7 


1:1.9 


i 


0.2 


o.os 


0.1 


0.2 


O.OS 


0.1 


0.2 


0.07 


0.1 


0.2 


0.07 


0.1 


k 


0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


0.4 


0.15 


0.2 


0.5 


0.15 


0.3 


1 


0.9 


0.32 


0.4 


0.9 


0.32 


0.5 


0.9 


0.30 


0.5 


0.9 


0..30 


0.6 


2 


1.8 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.59 


1.0 


1.9 


0..59 


1.1 


3 


2.7 


0.9(! 


1.3 


2.6 


0.96 


1.4 


2.7 


0.89 


1.5 


2.8 


0.89 


1.7 


4 


3.6 


1.28 


1.7 


3.5 


1.28 


1.9 


3.6 


1.19 


2.1 


3.7 


1.19 


2.3 


5 


4.5 


1.60 


2.2 


4.4 


1.60 


2.3 


4.5 


1.49 


2.6 


4.6 


1.49 


2.8 


Ih 


6.7 


2.40 


3.3 


6.6 


2.40 


3.5 


6.7 


2.23 


3.9 


6.9 


2.23 


4.3 


10 


8.9 


3.21 


4.3 


8.8 


3.21 


4.7 


9.0 


2.97 


5.1 


9.3 


2.97 


5.7 




Gluten Feed 


Gluten Feed 








(Buffalo or 


(Diamond or 


Hominy Chop, 


Starch Feed, 


By-products 


Alarshalltown) 


Rockford), 


1:9.2 


wet. 




1:2.4 


1:3.0 




1:4.9 


i 


0.2 


0.06 


0.1 


0.2 


0.05 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.1 


0.01 


0.1 


h 


0.4 


0.12 


0.3 


0.5 


0.10 


0.3 


0.5 


0.04 


0.4 


0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


1 


0.9 


0.23 


0.6 


0.9 


0.20 


0.6 


0.9 


0.09 


0.8 


0.3 


0.05 


0.3 


2 


l.H 


0.47 


1.1 


1.8 


0.41 


1.2 


1.8 


0.17 


1.6 


0.7 


0.11 


0.5 


3 


2.V 


0.70 


1.7 


2.7 


0.61 


1.9 


2.8 


0.26 


2.4 


1.0 


0.16 


0.8 


4 


3.(1 


0.93 


2.3 


3.6 


0.81 


2.5 


3.7 


0..35 


3.2 


1.4 


0.22 


1.1 


5 


4.5 


1.17 


2.8 


4.6 


1.02 


3.1 


4.6 


0.44 


4.0 


1.7 


0.27 


1.3 


VJ 


6.8 


1.75 


4.3 


6.8 


1.52 


4.7 


6.9 


0.65 


6.0 


2.6 


0.41 


1.7 


10 


9.0 


2.33 


5.V 


9.1 


2.03 


6.2 


9.2 


0.87 


8.0 


3.5 


0.54 


2.6 




Dried Brewers' 


Atlas Gluten 


Malt Sprouts, 
1:2.2 


Pea Meal, 


By-products 


Grains, 


Meal, 


1:3.2 




1:3.0 


1:2.6 






J 


0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


0.2 


0.06 


0.2 


0.2 


0.05 


0.1 


0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


^ 


0.5 


0.08 


0.3 


0.5 


0.12 


0.3 


0.4 


0.09 


0.2 


0.4 


0.08 


0.3 


1 


O.S 


0.16 


0,5 


0.9 


0.25 


0.6 


0.9 


0.19 


0.4 


0.9 


0.17 


0.5 


2 


1.8 


0.31 


0.9 


1.8 


0.49 


1.3 


1.8 


0..37 


O.S 


1.8 


0.33 


1.1 


3 


2.8 


0.47 


1.4 


2.8 


0.74 


1.9 


2.7 


0.56 


1.2 


2.7 


0.50 


1.6 


4 


3.7 


0.63 


1.9 


3.7 


0.98 


2.6 


3.6 


0.74 


1.6 


3.6 


0.67 


2.1 


5 


4.6 


0.79 


2.4 


4.6 


1.23 


3.2 


4.5 


0.93 


2.0 


4.5 


0.84 


2.7 


7J 


6.9 


1.18 


3.5 


6.9 


1.85 


4.9 


6.7 


1.40 


3.0 


6.7 


1.26 


4.0 


10 


9.2 


1.57 


4.7 


9.2 


2.46 


6.5 


9.0 


1.86 


4.0 


9.0 


1.68 


5.3 



AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS FOR A DAY S FEEDING 



221 



AMOUNT 


OF NUTRIENTS FOR A 


DAY'S FEEDING. 










D 


igestible 










U 
V 


n 


utrients 


* 

.2 














a 








m 






J3 


B 








u 


Standard 


Animal 








to 










^ 


•o 


a 












V 

> 


"rt 


"3 
o 


o rt 


4.> 


4-* 






O 


u 


« >> 


rt 


? 






J 


H 


a, 


Uj3 


(^ 


a: 




Oxen 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




Wolff-Leh- 
















mann 


At rest in stall .... 
Fattening Cattle 


1000 


18. 


0.7 


8. 


0.1 


1:11.8 


Wolff-Leh- 
















mann 


First period 


1000 


30. 


2.5 


15. 


0.5 


1: 6.5 


« 


Second period .... 


1000 


30. 


3.0 


14.5 


0.7 


1: 5.4 


« 


Third period 

Dairy Cozi's 
Milch cows, pro- 
ducing 16 lbs. of 


1000 


26. 


2.7 


15. 


0.7 


1: 6.2 




milk per day 


1000 


27. 


2.0 


11. 


0.4 


1: 6.0 


Wolflf-Leh- 


Horses 














mann 


Light work 


1000 


20. 


1.5 


9. 


0.4 


1: 7.0 


(< 


Medium work 


1000 


24. 


2.0 


11.5 


0.6 


1: 6.2 


<■ 


Heavy work 

Grozi'ing Cattle 


1000 


26. 


2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


1: 6.0 


Wolff-Leh- 


Dairy breeds 
(Age in months) 














mann 
ti 


2-3 


150 


3.5 


0.60 


1.95 


0.300 


1:4.5 


tt 


3-6 


300 


7.2 


0.90 


3.S4 


0.300 


1:5.1 




6-12 


BOO 


13.5 


1.00 


6.25 


0.250 


1:6.8 




12-18 


700 


IS. 2 


1.26 


8.75 


0.280 


1:7.5 




18-24 


900 


23.4 


1.35 


10.80 


0.270 


1:8.5 


Wolff-Leh- 


Beef breeds 














mann 


2-3 


160 


3.7 


0.67 


2.08 


0.320 


1:4.2 


(( 


3-6 


330 


7.9 


1.16 


4.22 


0.495 


1:4.7 




6-12 


550 


13.8 


1.38 


7.26 


0.3S5 


1:6.0 




12-18 


750 


IS.O 


1.50 


9. 38 


0.375 


1:6.7 




18-24 
Growing Sheep 


950 


22.8 


1.71 


11.40 


O.3S0 


1:7.2 


Wolff-Leh- 


Wool breeds 














mann 


•1-(J 


60 


1.5 


0.20 


0.92 


0.042 


1:5.0 


it 


6-S 


75 


1.9 


0.21 


1.04 


0.045 


1:5.4 


n 


8-11 


80 


1.8 


0.17 


0.92 


0.040 


1:6.0 


l< 


11-15 


90 


2.0 


0.16 


1.01 


0.036 


1:7.0 


a 


15-20 


100 


2.2 


0.15 


1.08 


0.030 


1:7.7 


Wolff-Leh- 


Mutton breeds 














mann 


4-t; 


60 


1.6 


0.26 


0.93 


0.054 


1:4.0 


<< 


6-8 


SO 


2.1 


0.28 


1.20 


0.056 


1:4.8 


«< 


8-11 


100 


2.4 


0.30 


1.43 


0.050 


1:5.2 


« 


11-15 


120 


2.8 


0.26 


1.51 


0.060 


1:6.3 


« 


15-20 


150 


3.3 


0.30 


1.80 


0.060| 1:6.5 



* The nutritive ratio is obtained by multiplying the number of pounds of fat 
by 2^, adding the product to the number of pounds of carbohydrates, and 
dividing this sum by the number of pounds of protein. 



222 



APPENDIX 









U 


Digestible 


o 








ctj 


nutrients 








■4-> 


E 




1 


i-i 












bo 






tfi 






Standard 


Animal 


"S 






<u 




u 






5= 


•d 


c 






> 








,_^ 


'C 


S-a 




."ti 






> 


rt . 


o 


■s^ 


•*.j 


u< 






O 


I-. 


raJ3 


tU 


3 






;3 


H 


PM 


U 


fe 


;? 




Growing Szvine 
















Breeding stock 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 






(Age in months) 














Wolff-Leh- 
















mann 


2-3 


50 


*> o 


0.38 


1.40 


0.050 


1:4.0 


a 


3-5 


100 


I'.l 


0.50 


2.31 


0.080 


1:5.0 


u 


5-6 


120 


3.8 


0.44 


2.56 


0.048 


1:6.0 


u 


6-8 


200 


5.6 


0.56 


3.74 


0.060 


1:7.0 


It 


8-12 


253 


6.3 


0.63 


3.83 


0.050 


1:7.5 




Growing fattening 
















Swine 














Wolff-Leh- 
















mann 


2-3 


50 


O O 


0.38 


1.40 


0.050 


1:4.0 


(( 


3-5 


100 


I'.l 


0.50 


2.31 


0.080 


1:5.0 


n 


5-6 


150 


5.0 


0.65 


3.35 


0.090 


1:5.5 


<( 


6-8 


200 


6.0 


0.72 


4.10 


0.080 


1:6.0 


<i 


9-12 


200 


5.2 


0.60 


3.66 


0.060 


1:6.4 












Car- 














Pro- 


bohy- 
drates 








Human beings 






tein 


and 

Fats 






Children, 6-15 yrs. 






0.16 


0.93 




1:5.2 




* Students 






0.20 


1.11 




1:5.5 




Professional Men 






0.27 


1.76 




1:4.7 




Man with moderate 
















work 






0.28 


1.62 




1:5.8 




Man with hard work 






0.39 


2.67 




1:6.9 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS 223 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS. 



NAME OF FEED 



Fertilizing Constituents ih 
1,000 Pounds 



Nitrogen 



Phosphoric 
Acid 



Potash 



Concentrates 



Corn, all analyses . . 

Corn Cob 

Corn and Cob Meal. 

Corn Bran 

Gluten Meal 

Germ Meal 

Starch Refuse 

Grano-Gluten 

Hominy Chops .... 

Sugar Meal 

Starch Feed, wet. . . 



Wheat 

High-grade Flour . . . 
Low-grade Flour . . . . 
Dark Feeding Flour. 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Shorts 

Wheat Middlings . . . . 
Wheat Screenings . . 



Rye 

Rye Bran . 
Rye Shorts 



Barley 

Malt Sprouts 

Brewers' Grains, wet . . 
Brewers' Grains, dried. 



Oats 

Oat Feed or Shorts. 
Oat Hulls 



Rice 

Rice Hulls 

Rice Bran . 

Rice Polish 



Buckwheat 

Buckwheat Hulls . . . . 
Buckwheat Bran .... 
Buckwheat Middlings 



Sorghum Seed 
Millet 



Flax Seed 

Linseed Meal, old process. . 
Linseed Meal, new process. 



Lb;:.. 

18.2 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
50.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.S 
16.3 
36.3 
9.8 

23.6 
18.9 
28.9 
31.8 
26.7 
28.2 
26.3 
24.4 

17.6 
23.2 

18.4 

15.1 

35.5 

8.9 

36.2 

20.6 

17.2 

5.2 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 

14.4 

4.9 

36.4 

42.8 

14.8 
20.4 

36.1 
54.3 

57.8 



Lbs. 

7.0 
.6 
5.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 
9.8 
4.1 
1.0 

7.9 

2.2 

5.6 

21.4 

28.9 

13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 

14.3 

3.1 

10.3 

8.2 
9.1 
2.4 

l.S 
1.7 
2.9 

26.7 

4.4 
0.7 

17.8 
21.9 

8.1 

8.5 

13.9 
16.6 
18.3 



Lbs. 

4.0 
6.0 
4.7 
6.8 
0.5 
5.0 
5.2 
1.5 
4.9 
0.3 
1.0 

5.0 
1.5 
3.5 
10.9 
16.1 
5.9 
6.3 
8.4 

5.4 

14.0 

8.1 

4.8 

16.3 

0.5 

0.9 

6.2 
5.3 
5.2 

0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 

2.1 
5.2 

12.8 
11.4 

4.2 
3.6 

10.3 
13.7 
13.9 



224 



APPENDIX 



NAME OF FEED 



Fodder Corn, green 

Fodder Corn, field-cured. , 
Corn Stover, . field-cured. 



Fresh Grass. 



Pasture Grasses (mixed) . 
Timothy, different stages 
Orchard Grass, in bloom. 

Oat Fodder 

Rye Fodder 

Sorghum 

Hungarian Grass 



Hay 



Timothy 

Orchard Grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky Blue Grass. 
Hungarian Grass .... 

Mixed Grasses 

Rowen (mixed) 

Meadow Fescue .... 
Soja-bean Hay 



Straw 



Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat Chaff 



Concentrates — continued 

Cotton Seed 

Cotton-seed Meal 

Cotton-seed Hulls 

Cocoanut Meal 

Palm-nut Meal 

Sunflower Seed 

Sunflower-seed Cakes 

Peanut Meal 

Rape-seed Meal 

Peas 

Soja (Soy) Bean 

Horse Bean 

Roughage 

Fodder Corn 



Fertilizing Constituents in 
1,000 Pounds 



Nitrogen 



Phosphoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 

31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
55.5 
75.6 
49.6 

30.8 
53.0 
40.7 



12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 
23.3 



5.9 
4.6 
6.2 
13.1 
7.9 



Lbs. 

12.7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11.0 
12.2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 

8.2 
18.7 
12.0 



4.1 


1.5 


3.3 


17.6 


5.4 


8.9 


10.4 


2.9 


14.0 


9.1 


2.3 


7.5 


4.8 


2.6 


7.6 


4.3 


1.6 


7.6 


4.9 


1.3 


3.8 


3.3 


1.5 


7.3 


2.3 


0.9 


2.3 


3.9 


1.6 


5.5 



5.3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 
6.7 



1.2 
2.8 
2.0 
3.0 

7.0 



Potash 



Lbs. 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 

9.9 
19.9 
12.9 



9.0 
18.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 
21.0 
10.8 



5.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS 



225 



NAME OF FEED 



Fertilizing Constituents in 
1,000 Pounds 



Nitrogen 



Phosphoric 
Acid 



Potash 



Roughage — continued 
Fresh Legumes 



Red Clover, different stages. 

Alsike, bloom 

Crimson Clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja Bean 



Legume Hay and Straw 



Red Clover, medium. . 
Red Clover, mammoth 

Alsike Clover 

\\ hite Clover 

Crimson Clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja-bean Straw 

Pea-vine Straw 



Corn 



Silage 



Roots and Tubers 



Potato 

Beet, commor 
Beet, sugar . 
Beet, mangel 
Flat Turnip . 
Ruta-baga . . 

Carrot 

Parsnip .... 
Artichoke . . . 



Miscellaneous 



Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet Leaves 
Pumpkin, garden . 
Prickly Comfrey . 

Rape 

Dried Blood 

Meat Scrap 

Dried Fish 

Beet Pulp 

Beet Molasses . . . 



Cows' Milk 

Cows' Milk, colostrum. 
Skim Milk, gravity. . . . 
Skim Milk, centrifugal. 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



Lbs. 



2.8 



Lbs. 



1.1 



3.2 


1.2 


2.4 


0.9 


2.2 


1.0 


1.9 


0.9 


1.8 


1.0 


1.9 


1.2 


1.5 


0.9 


1.8 


2.0 


2.6 


1.4 


3.8 


1.1 


3.8 


2.5 


4.1 


1.5 


1.1 


1.6 


4.2 


1.1 


4.5 


1.5 


135.0 


13.5 


113.9 


7.0 


77.5 


120.0 


1.4 


0.2 


14.6 


0.5 


5.3 


1.9 


28.2 


6.6 


5.6 


2.0 


5.6 


2.0 


4.8 


1.7 


1.5 


1.4 



Lbs. 



5.3 


1.3 


4.6 


4.4 


1.1 


2.0 


4.3 


1.3 


4.9 


7.2 


1.3 


5.6 


2.7 


1.0 


3.1 


2.9 


1.5 


5.3 


20.7 


3.8 


22.0 


22.3 


5.5 


12.2 


23.4 


6.7 


22.3 


27.5 


5.2 


18.1 


20.5 


4.0 


13.1 


21.9 


5.1 


16.8 


19.5 


5.2 


14.7 


17.5 


4.0 


13.2 


14.3 


3.5 


10.2 



3.7 



4.6 
4.4 
4.8 
3.8 
3.9 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 
4.7 



4.3 
5.9 
6.2 
0.9 
7.5 
3.6 
7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
56.3 

1.8 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 



226 APPENDIX 

NUTRIENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS. 



FOOD MATERIALS 



Animal Foods, as Purchased 

Beef : Neck 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round steak 

Veal : Shoulder 



Animal Foods, Edible Portion 

Beef: Neck , 

Shoulder 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round 

Rump, corned 

Veal : Shoulder 

Mutton : Shoulder 

Leg 

Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked , 

Fat, salted 

Chicken 

Eggs 

Milk 

Butter 

Cheese: Full-cream 

Fish : Codfish 

Salmon 

Mackerel, salt 

Oysters 



Vegetable Foods 

Wheat flour 

Graham flour (wheat) 

Rye flour , 

Buckwheat flour 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal 

Rice 

Peas 

Beans 

Potatoes 

Sweet Potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions 

String beans 

Green peas 

Green corn 

Tomatoes 

Cabbage 

Apples 

Sugar, granulated 

Molasses 

White bread (wheat) 



Total Dry 
Matter 



30.4 
40.8 
32.2 
31.3 
25.^ 



38. 
36 
51 
40 
31 
41 
31 
41 
38 
49 
58, 
87, 
27, 
26 
13 
89 
69 
17 
36 



12.9 



87.5 
86.9 
86.9 
85.4 
92.4 
85.0 
87.6 
87.7 
87.4 
21.1 
28.9 
10.6 
11.4 
12.4 
12. S 
21.9 
18.7 
4.0 
8.1 
16.8 
98.0 
75.4 
67.7 



Protein 



% 

15.6 
12.2 
Ih.O 
18.8 
16.6 



11.0 

11.7 

6.7 

6.9 

15.1 

9.2 

7.4 

26.7 

23.1 

2.1 

1.5 

1.2 

1.1 

1.4 

2.2 

4.4 

2.8 

0.8 

2.1 

0.2 



8.8 



Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 



% 

31.5 
62.8 
36.9 
27.7 
17.8 



19.5 


39.4 


19.5 


35.1 


15.4 


80.1 


18.5 


46.1 


20.5 


23.7 


13.3 


59.9 


20.2 


22.1 


18.1 


50.4 


18.3 


42.8 


16.0 


73.8 


16.7 


88.0 


0.9 


186.3 


24.4 


4.5 


14.9 


23.6 


3.6 


13.7 


1.0 


191.8 


28.3 


81.7 


15.8 


0.9 


21.6 


30.2 


17.3 


59.4 


6.0 


6.4 



77.4 
75.5 
80.5 
79.3 
84.1 
79.2 
80.3 
60.3 
63.7 
18.1 
26.9 
8.7 
9.8 
10.8 
10.3 
17.4 
15.7 
3.4 
6.3 
16.8 
97.8 
73.1 
60.1 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 227 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES. 



Directions for Using the Babcock Test. 

Sampling the Milk — Great care should be taken to 
have the sample of milk represent as nearly as possible 
the whole lot from which it was taken. Milk fresh from 
the cow, while it is still warm and before the cream has 
separated in a layer, may be thoroughly mixed by pouring- 
it three or four times from one vessel to another. Sam- 
ples taken at once from milk mixed in this way give the 
best results. Milk that has stood until a layer of cream 
has formed should be poured a greater number of times 
so that the cream shall be thoroughly broken up and the 
whole appear like milk. No clots of cream should appear 
on the surface when the milk is left quiet for a minute. 

Measuring the Milk. — When the milk has been well 
mixed, the milk pipette is filled by placing its lower end 
in the milk and sucking at the upper end until the milk 
rises above the mark on the stem ; then remove the pipette 
from the mouth and quickly close the tube at the upper 
end by firmly pressing the tip of the index finger upon 
it. So long as this is done, the milk cannot flow from the 
pipette. Holding the pipette up straight, with the mark 
on a level with the eye, carefully admit air slowly to the 
space above the milk, till the upper surface of the milk 
falls to the mark upon the stem. Always have the upper 



228 



APPENDIX 



m 



tc. 



/ 



<^ 



\ 



\ 



o. 






U 

M 



/ 



u 



c.c 






end of the pipette and the finger dry when measuring 
milk, as it is almost impossible to gradually lower the 

milk if the finger is wet. Next, 

^ place the point of the pipette in 

I the mouth of one of the test bot- 

^ ties, held in a slightly slanting 

;5 position, so that the milk can flow 

I down the side of the tube, and re- 

» move the finger, allowing the 

milk to flow into the bottle. After 

waiting a short time for the 

pipette to drain, blow into the 

upper end to expel all the milk. 

Adding the Acid. — When the 
milk has been measured into the 
test bottles, the necessary amount 
of acid may be added immedi- 
ately, or the bottles may be left 
for a day or two without mate- 
rially changing the results. 

The amount of acid required 
for a test is about the same as that 
of the milk, 17.5 c. c. for the 
ordinary test. If too little acid is 
added, the casein is not all held in 
solution throughout the test, and 
an imperfect separation of the fat 
results. If too much acid is used, 
the fat itself is attacked. Great 
care must be taken in handling the 



^=^ 



^10 
9 

8 
7 
^6 
=-S 
h* 
i-3 
i-2 
I 







acid to avoid getting any of it on the skin or clothing. 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 229 

The acid measure is filled to the 17.5 c. c. mark with 
acid, which is then carefully poured into a test bottle, 
containing- milk. The bottle should be held in a slightly 
slanting position so that the acid may follow down its 
side, and not come in contact with the milk too suddenly 
and thus act upon it unevenly. The acid being heavier 
than the milk, sinks directly to the bottom of the test bot- 
tle without mixing with the milk, which floats upon it. 
The acid and milk should now be thoroughly mixed by 
being gently shaken with a rotary motion. The mixture 
becomes quite hot and soon changes to a dark brown color. 

Whirling the Bottles. — The test bottles containing the 
mixture of milk and acid may be placed in the machine 
directly after the acid is added, or they may be allowed 
to stand several hours without harm. An even number 
of bottles should be whirled at the same time, and they 
should be placed in the wheel in pairs opposite each other. 
When all the test bottles have been placed in the appara- 
tus, the cover should be placed upon the jacket and the 
machine turned at such a rate that the wheel carrying 
the bottles shall make from 700 to 1,200 revolutions per 
minute. This motion must be kept up for six or seven 
minutes. 

Adding Hot Water. — As soon as the bottles have been 
sufficiently whirled, pour in enough hot water to bring 
the mixture up to the bottom of the neck. Put the bottles 
into the machine and whirl again for about three minutes. 
Now pour in enough hot water to bring all the fat up 
into the neck of the bottle, where it may be measured. 

Measuring the Fat. — To measure the fat, take a bottle 
from its socket, and, holding it in an upright position 



230 APPENDIX 

with the scale on a level with the eye, observe the divi- 
sions which mark the highest and lowest limits of the fat. 
The fat should be read from the extreme top of the curved 
upper surface, and not from the bottom or middle of 
the same. The difference between these divisions gives 
the per cent of fat directly. The reading can easily be 
taken to half divisions or to one-tenth of one per cent. 

Example. — If the figures on the necks of the bottles 
gave the per cent of butter fat, for example, as from o 
to 3, there would be three per cent. The spaces between 
the figures represent one per cent, and each space between 
the lines represents two tenths of one per cent. Thus, if 
the bottom of the oil in the neck of the bottle stood at 
the figure 2 and the top of the third fine line above the 
figure 6, there would be four and six tenths per cent 
(4.6 per cent). Each per cent represents one pound of 
butter fat in one hundred pounds of milk. 

Amount of Butter — It must be remembered that the 
Babcock Test gives only the amount of butter fat in the 
milk or cream, and that the butter itself contains several 
substances besides butter fat, so that the amount of butter 
shows an increase of from ten per cent to eighteen per 
cent. Hence, in figuring the amount of butter made, 
this increase should be added to the amount of butter fat 
which is shown by the Babcock Test. 

Silage. 

Grass, clover, corn fodder and cow peas, when fed in 
the green state, are relished by farm animals much more 
than after they are cured. Much of the nutriment of 
plants is lost in the process of curing and the matter is 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 



231 



made less digestible. It has been found that corn fodder 
loses nearly one fourth in digestible matter by being 
allowed to cure in the 
field. Although grass, 
clover and fodder can 
not be kept in their 
fresh green state by be- 
ing put in a silo, they 
can be preserved in this 
manner so that they 



undergo 
chansfes. 



only 



slight 



Green fodder put in a 





Fig. 140 



Fig. 139. — Silo. 

silo ferments a little and 
often changes to a dark 
brown color. It is 
called ensilage, or more 
properly, silage. The 
word silage is also used 
often for corn silage. 
Any green matter may 
be put in a silo. Besides 
corn silage, which is the 
y/ most common form, clo- 
ver silage, cow-pea si- 
lage, alfalfa silage, beet 
silage, and soja bean si- 



232 



APPENDIX 



lage are often made. To make the silage more easily 
handled and more easily eaten by the cattle, the fodder is 
usually made fine by cutting before it is put in the silo. 

A silo may be built inside or outside the barn. It may 
be built above the ground or it may be dug in the ground 
like a cistern. The matter of greatest importance is to 
make the silo air-tight. If air is admitted, the silage 
decays and becomes unfit for use. 

Round silos, built either of brick or of wood, are 
becoming very popular. They hold more silage than 
square silos of equal size. The silage settles more evenly 
in them, also, and there is no loss from decayed silage in 
corners. The silage at the top of a silo decays and 
forms a pasty mass which prevents the air from passing 
through to the material below. This thin layer of 
decayed silage serves as an air-tight cover for the 
silo. 

Number of Tons of Corn Silage in Cylindrical Silos. 









Inside Diameter in 


Feet. 






Depth in Feet. 




















16 


17 


IS 
116 


19 

129 


20 
143 


21 
158 


22 

173 • 


23 


25 


90 


101 


189 


26 


97 


110 


123 


137 


152 


167 


184 


201 


27 


103 


116 


130 


i-;5 


160 


177 


194 


212 


28 


108 


122 


137 


152 


170 


186 


204 


223 


29 


114 


128 


144 


160 


178 


196 


215 


235 


30 


119 


135 


151 


168 


187 


206 


226 


247 


31 


125 


141 


158 


176 


195 


215 


236 


258 


32 


136 


148 


166 


185 


205 


225 


247 


270 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 



233 



Townships and Sections. 

How to Describe Land. — The United States Govern- 
ment has surveyed a large part of the land in this country. 
An understanding of the system will enable one to locate 
any piece of land accurately. 



w 


IV 


in 


II 


1 


r. 

1 


II 


III 


IV 


TJ, 




T.IS. 

R.4W 






1 


Base 


Line 
















2 
















T.3S. 
R.3 W. 




3 








T.3S. 
R.4E. 












4 


c 
.2 
|5 


















5 




















6 


Corr 

0. 


action 


Line 














7 




c 

Q. 


















8 




















9 












w. 








10 








T.IOS 
R.4 E 


Tl, 






1 


1 


( 


. 


1 




1 





Fig. 141. — U. S. Land Survey. 

The government first establishes two lines from which 
to commence the survey. A line, called a Principal 
Meridian^ is run north and south, and a line, called a Base 
Line, is run east and west across the principal meridian. 
Commencing with the principal meridian, distances of 
six miles are measured off on the base line, and, from 



234 



APPENDIX 



these points, lines are run directly north and south. 
Commencing with the base line, distances of six miles are 
measured on the principal meridian, and lines through 
these points are run east and west parallel with the base 
line. These lines, north and south, and east and west, 
divide the land into townships. These are about six 
miles square, and contain about thirty-six square miles 
each. 

A row of townships running north and south is called 
a Range. 

Lines running north and south converge toward the 
north ; i. e., they get closer together as they run north. 

The to w n- 



A TOWNSHIP 



A SECTION 



6 


5 


i 


3 


2 


1 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


11 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


21 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



N. J Section 
(320 A.) 



ships some 

distance north 

w — I — E I 1 ,^ .iN.E.i l of the base 

W. i of ' 

fore narrower 
^i'^- '42. than those 

south of them. To avoid making townships too narrow 
for practical use, a Correction Line is run east and west. 
From this line, the survey commences again. It is a 
new base line. 

In Figure 141, the town in the southeast corner is 
described as Town 10 South, Range 4 East. This is 
usually written, T 10 S, R 4 E. 

A township contains about thirty-six square miles, 
called Sections. The sections are numbered consecutively, 
commencing in the northeast corner, as shown in the 
diagram. 

The sections are made full size on the south and east 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 235 

rows. When the township contains less than thirty-six 
full sections, the north and west sections are not full size. 

A full section contains 640 acres, and is divided into 
halves, quarters, etc., as shown in the diagram. The 
upper 40-acre piece is described as the Northeast quar- 
ter of the Southeast quarter (written N. E. 34 of S. E. 
}i). The 80-acre piece is the West half of the South- 
east quarter (written W. 3^ of S. E. y[). 

Exercises. — With the atlas or sectional map of your 
county and state before you, describe the quarter section 
in which the schoolhouse is situated. 

Make diagrams on paper or on the blackboard, show- 
ing the location of each of the following, telling the 
number of acres represented in each case : 

N. E. ^ of S. W. y4 of Sec. i6, T 4 N, R 3 E. 

N. y2 of N. W. y4 of Sec. 36, T 7 N, R 5 W. 

E. >4 of N. E. >4 of N. W. M oi Sec. 22, T 5 S, R 2 E. 

Describe the lo-acre piece on which your home is lo- 
cated. 

Contents of Fields and Lots. 

The following table will assist in making accurate 
estimate of the amount of land in different fields under 
cultivation : 



10 rods 


X 


16 


rods 


1 A 


220 


feet 


X 198 feet 


1 A 


8 " 


X 


20 


** 


1 A 


440 




X 99 


1 A 


5 " 


X 


32 


ti 


1 A 


110 




X 369 


1 A 


4 " 


X 


40 


ti 


1 A 


60 




X 726 


1 A 


5 yards 


X 


968 


It 


1 A 


120 




X 363 


1 A 


10 " 


X 


484 


yards 


1 A 


240 




X 181 1-2 " 


1 A 


20 " 


X 


242 


*- 


1 A 


200 




X 108 9-10 " 


1 A 


40 " 


X 


121 


*' 


1 A 


100 




X 145 2-10 " 


1 A 


80 " 


X 


60 1-2 


** 


1 A 


100 




X 108 9-10 " 


1-4 A 


70 " 


X 


69 1-2 


<( 


1 A 











236 



APPENDIX 



Space and Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre. 



Name. 

Asparagus 

Asparagus Roots 
English Dwarf Beans 
French Dwarf Beans 
Beans, pole, large 
Beans, pole, small 
Beets 

Broccoli and Kale 
Cabbage 



Cauliflower 


T 


Carrot 




Celery 




Cucumber 




Cress 




Egg Plant 




Endive 




Leek 




Lettuce 




Melon 




Nasturtium 




Onion 




Okra 




Parsley 




Parsnips 




Peppers 




Peas 




Pumpkin 




Radish 




Salsify 




Spinach 




Squash 




Tomato 




Turnip 




Watermelon 





Space and Quantity of Seeds. 

1 oz. produces 1,000 plants, and requires a bed 12 ft. 

square. 
1,000 plant a bed 4 feet wide and 225 feet long. 
1 quart plants from 100 to 150 feet of row. 
1 quart plants from 250 to 350 feet of row. 
1 quart plants 100 hills. 
1 quart plants 39 hills or 250 feet of row. 
10 lbs. to the acre, 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 
1 oz. plants 2,500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. 
Early sorts same as broccoli, and require 60 sq. ft. of 

ground. 
The same as cabbage. 

oz. to 150 feet of row. 
1 oz. plants 2,500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground 

oz. for 150 hills. 

oz. sows a bed 16 feet square. 

oz. gives 2,000 plants. 

oz. gives 3,000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. 

oz. gives 2,000 plants, and requires 60 feet of ground. 

oz. gives 7,000 plants, and requires a seed bed of 120 
feet. 

oz. for 120 hills. 

oz.sovvs 25 feet of row. 

oz. sows 200 feet of row. 

oz. sows 200 feet of row. 

oz. sows 20U feet of row. 

oz. sows 250 feet of row. 

oz. gives 2,500 plants. 

quart sows 120 feet of row. 

oz. to 150 hills. 

oz. to 100 feet. 

oz. to 50 feet of row. 

oz. to 200 feet of row. 

oz. to 75 hills. 

oz. gives 2,500 plants, requiring a seed bed of 80 feet 

oz. to 2,000 feet. 

oz. to 50 hills. 



Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre. 



Name. 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Millet 

Corn 

Beans 

Peas 

Hemp 

Flax 

Rice 



Quantity of Seed. 

1'4 to 2 bushels. 
lyi to 2;^ bushels. 
2 to 4 bushels. 
1 to 2 bushels. 
}i to I'A bushels. 
1 to 1 5<2 bushels. 
^ to 1 bushel. 
1 to 3 bushels. 
2Y2 Xo SV2 bushels. 

1 to 1^ bushels. 
J4 to 2 bushels. 

2 to Zyi pounds. 



Name. 

Broom Corn 
Potatoes 
Timothy 
Mustard 
Herd Grass 
Flat Turnip 
Red Clover 
White Clover 
Blue Grass 
Orchard Grass 
Carrots 
Parsnips 



Quantity op Seed. 

1 to 15^ bushels. 

5 to 10 bushels. 
12 to 24 quarts. 
8 to 20 quarts. 
12 to 16 quarts. 

2 to 3 pounds. 
10 to 16 pounds. 

3 to 4 pounds. 
10 to 15 pounds. 
20 to 30 pounds. 

4 to 5 pounds. 

6 to 8 pounds. 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 



237 



Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc. 
The table given below shows the weight of grain, seeds, 
etc.. per bushel as established by the Legislatures of the 
states named : 



Articles 



Wheat 

Rye 

Corn 

Oats 

Barlev 

Buckwheat 

Clover Seed 

Timothy Seed... 

FJax Seed 

Hemp Seed 

Blue Grass Seed 
Apples, Dried. . 
Peaches, Dried. 

Coarse Salt 

Fine Salt 

Potatoes 

Peas 

Beans 

Castor Beans. . . 

Onions 

Corn Meal 



50 



tn 


>, 


(— I 


■it. 




tl 




n 


T3 







C 


J3 


V 


W 


M 



52 



60 
56 
56 
32 
48 
50 
60 
45 
56 
50 
14 
28 
28 
56 
56 
60 
60 
60 



52 



Plowing. 

Showing the distance traveled by a horse in plowing 
an acre of land : 





Distance Trav- 


Breadth of 


eled IN Plow- 


Furrow Slice 


ing an Acre 


Inches 


Miles 


7 


14'^ 


8 


12^ 


9 


11 


10 


9 9-10 


11 


9 


12 


8% 


13 


7/. 


14 


7 


15 


6^ 


18 


eii 


17 


5^ 


18 


55I 


19 


5^ 


20 


4 9-10 



238 APPENDIX 

To Find the Number of Bushels in a Bin or Crib. 

Multiply together the length, breadth and thickness in 
feet, and multiply this product by .8. 

Two cubic feet of good dry corn in the ear will make 
a bushel of shelled corn. 

To Find the Number of Tons of Hay in a Mow or Rick. 

In Mow : Multiply together the height, length and 
breadth in feet, and divide the product by 350 for wild 
hay, by 450 for timothy hay, and by 600 for clover hay. 

In Rick : Multiply the length by the breadth, and that 
product by half the difference between the breadth and 
the distance over. This will give the number of cubic 
feet. Divide as above to find the number of tons. 

To Find the Area of a Circle. 

Square the diameter (multiply the diameter by itself), 
and multiply by .7854. 

How to Tell the Age of a Horse. 

The appearance of a horse's teeth is a pretty sure in- 
dication of his age. 

The first year, the colt cuts its twelve front teeth and 
sixteen grinders. They all show the mark on the 
grinding surface. 

At the end of the second year, the marks on the two 
front teeth (the nippers) are much worn out, and the 
next two teeth are somewhat worn. 

At the end of the third year, the horse has lost his 
four front baby teeth, and, at the end of the fourth year, 
all the baby teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 



239 













The fifth year shows the nippers grown 
long, and the sharp edges worn down 
somewhat. 

The sixth year shows the dark marks 
in the nippers on the lower jaw worn 
out. 

Seven years find the four front teeth 
worn. 

Eight years find all the teeth worn, so 
that the marks in the centers can not be 
seen. 

At nine, the upper nippers have almost 
lost the marks. At this age, also, the 
upper corner teeth show curves in their 
surfaces. 

At ten, the marks in the middle upper 
teeth have changed from oblong to nearly 
circular. At eleven, all of the upper teeth 
show the same change. 

At twelve, the lower nippers have be- 
come nearly round. At thirteen, the 
middle lower teeth are nearly round; at 
fourteen, all are round. 

At fifteen years, the upper nippers are 
rounded ; at sixteen, the upper middle, 
and, at seventeen, all the uppers have the 
same shape. At eighteen, the lower nip- 
pers become three-cornered ; at nineteen, 
the middle ones. 

At twenty, all the lower teeth are tri- 
angular. 



240 



APPENDIX 




Diagram of Cow. 



Head. 
Muzzle. 



3. Nostril. 

4. Face. 



5. Eye. 

6. Forehead. 

7. Horn. 

8. Ear. 

9. Cheek. 

10. Throat. 

11. Neck. 

12. Withers. 

13. Back. 

14. Loins. 

15. Hip bone. 

16. Pelvic arch. 

17. Rump. 

18. Tail. 

19. Switch. 

20. Chest. 

21. Brisket. 

22. Dewlap. 

23. Shoulder. 

24. Elbow. 



2.5. 
26! 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 



Forearm. 

Knee. 

Ankle. 

Hoof. 

Heart girth. 

Side or barrel. 

Belly. 

Flank. 

Milk vein. 

Fore udder. 

Hind udder. 

Teats. 

Upper thigh. 

Stifle. 

Twist. 

Leg or gaskin. 

Hock. 

Shank. 

Dew claw. 



1. 


Head. 


16. 


Chest. 


2. 


Face. 


17. 


Shoulder. 


3. 


Muzzle. 


18. 


Elbow. 


4. 


Nostril. 


19. 


Forearm. 


5. 


Eye. 


20. 


Knee. 


6. 


Ear. 


21. 


Ankle. 


7. 


Cheek. 


22. 


Claw. 


8. 


Neck. 


23. 


Girth Measure. 


9. 


Withers. 


24. 


Side or Barrel. 


10. 


Throat. 


25. 


Belly. 


U. 


Back. 


26. 


Flank. 


12. 


Loins. 


27. 


Hip Joint. 


13. 


Angle of Ilium 


.28. 


Stifle Joint. 


14. 


Rump. 


29. 


Hock Joint. 


15. 


Tail or Dock. 








Diagram of Sheep. 



27 bis 



ZSbis. 




Diagram of Horse. 



0. 


Poll or 


nape 


19. Coronet. 




of the neck. 


20. Foot. 


1. 


Neck. 




21. Xiphoid 


1' 


Jugular gutter. 


region. 


2. 


Withers. 




22. Ribs. 


3. 


Back. 




23. Abdomen. 


4. 


Loins. 




24. Flank. 


5. 


Croup. 




25. Sheath. 


6. 


Tail. 




20. Testicles. 


7. 


Parotid region. 


27. Buttock. 


8. 


Throat. 




27 bis. Angle 


9. 


Shoulder. 




of buttock 


10. 


Point of 


the 


28. Thigh. 




shoulder 


. 


28 bis. Haunch. 


11. 


Arm. 




29. Stifle. 


12. 


Elbow. 




30. Leg. 


13. 


Forearm. 




31. Hock. 


14. 


Chestnut. 




32. Chestnut. 


15. 


Knee. 




33. Canon. 


16. 


Canon. 




34. Fetlock. 


17. 


Fetlock. 




35. Pastern. 


18. 


Pastern. 




36. Coronet. 



HELPFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 



241 



1. 


Comb. 


14. 


Wing coverts, 


2. 


Face. 




forming wing- 


3. 


Wattles. 




bar. 


4. 


Ear-lobes. 


15. 


S e c n d a ries, 


5. 


Hackle. 




wing-bay. 


6. 


Breast. 


16. 


Primaries or 


7. 


Back. 




flight feathers; 


8. 


Saddle. 




wing-butts. 


9. 


Saddle-feath- 


17. 


Point of breast 




ers. 




bone. 


10. 


Sickles. 


18. 


Thighs. 


11. 


Tail-coverts. 


19. 


Hocks. 


13. 


Main tail 


20. 


Shanks or legs. 




feathers. 


21. 


Spur. 


13. 


Wing-bow. 


22. 


Toes or claws. 




Diagram of Chicken. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Aberdeen, Angus cattle 158 

Air, in seeds 65 

necessary for germination. ... 64 

Agropyrum 123, 124 

Albumen 162, 170 

Ameba 14 

Animal husbandry 152, 153 

Annuals 106 

Anther 97 

Apple, culture of 138-140 

Arabian horse 177 

Arctium no 

Ashes, wood 40 

Aylesburg ducks 199 

Ayrshire cattle I5S 

Babcock test 163 

directions for 227 

Bacteria of milk 166 

Barns and other buildings 212 

Bartlett pear 99 

Base line 233 

Bees 201—206 

aid pollination 98 

Beef Si 

Beef breeds 157 

Beetles, lady-bird 144 

potato 57 

Berkshire hogs 189 

Biennials 106 

Bindweed 125, 126 

Bins, contents of 238 

Birds 147-151 

food of 149 

Blackberry, culture of 134, 135 



PAGE. 

Blight, of pear tree 59 

Bluestone 59 

Blue vitriol 59 

Bordeaux mixture 59, 60 

Borer, flat-headed 138 

Breeds 152 

of chickens 193 

of ducks 199 

of horses 177 

of swine 1S9 

Brahma chickens 194 

Brassica 118 

Breeding, plant 104 

Bronze turkeys 200 

Brown Swiss cattle 156 

Buckhorn plantain uS, 129 

Buds 31. 32 

roots from 82 

Burdock 1 1 o, in 

Butter 5 1 

Butter and eggs 112, 113 

Cactus, Russian 1 19—122 

Caly.x 96 

Canada thistle 109, no 

Capillary attraction 18 

Carbohydrates 1 69, 1 70 

in fodder 215 

Carbon 26 

Carbonic acid 26, 27 

Care of fowls 195 

Carrot, wild 124, 125 

Casein 162, 170 

Caterpillar 144 

Cayuga ducks 199 



243 



244 



INDEX 



PAGE. 

Cell 14 

Charlock 118 

Cheese factories I59 

Cherry blossom 97 

Cherry, culture of 140 

Chester white hogs 191, 192 

Cheviot sheep 183, 184, 185 

Chicken, diagram of 241 

Chlorophyll 26,30 

Chrysanthemum iii, 112 

Cions 85 

Circle, area of 238 

Clays 179 

Cleft-graft 85,86 

Clotbur 113, 114 

Clover 45. 47. So 

tubercles on 46 

Clover testing 73 

Clydesdale horse 180 

Coach horses 181 

Cochin chickens i94 

Cocklebur 113, 114 

Codling moth 139 

Colostrum 162 

Comb honey 205 

Commercial fertilizers 40, 54 

Compass plant 127, 128 

Consumption 164 

Convolvulus 125, 126 

Copper sulfate 59 

Corn, Indian 50, 51,52, 102 

Cornish Indian game chickens. ... 194 

Corolla 97 

Correction line 234 

Cost and feeding 174 

Cotswold sheep 187, 188 

Couch grass 123, 1 24 

Cow, diagram of 240 

Cows, care of 165 

Creameries 159 

Cribs, contents of 238 

Crops, rotation of 49, 50 

to raise the best 94 

Crops and weeds 105 

Cropping land 43 

Cross fertilization 104 

Cucumber blossom 103 

Curculio 140 

Curled dock 116, 117 

Curled rumex Ij6, 117 



PAGE. 

Currant, culture of 135, 136 

propagated by cuttings 83 

Cuttings, dormant 83 

green 84 

propagation by 83 

Dairy breeds 1 54 

Dairying 159—168 

removes little fertility 51 

Daisy iii, 112 

Damsel fly 146 

Dan Patch 178 

Daucus carota 124, 125 

Decomposition 26 

Delaine sheep 183, 185 

Destroyers, natural 143 

Devon cattle 158 

Dock 1 16, 1 17 

Dog grass 123, 124 

Dormant buds 31 

Dormant cuttings 83 

Dorset sheep 183, 187 

Draft horses 180 

Dragon fly 145 

Drainage 34 

Drone bees 201, 202 

Ducks and Turkeys 198—200 

Duroc-Jersey hogs 189, 191 

Dutch belted cattle 156 

Earth lamp 17 

Egg breeds 193 

Egg of insect 14S 

Eldorado blackberry 134 

English shire horse 180 

Evaporation 18 

from plants 21 

makes packing necessary .... 69 

through leaves 22 

Evergreen trees 209, 212 

Extracted honey 205 

Fat, in foods 171 

of milk 1 60 

Feeding, principles of 169 

Feeding chickens 196 

Feeding standards 171 

Feeding stuffs, manurial value of. 175 

Fertilization, cross 104 

Fertilization of ovule 99 



INDEX 



245 



PAGE. 

Fertility 5 1 

Fertilizer 43 

dover a 45 

Fertilizers, commercial 40,54 

Fertilizing constituents 223 

Fields and lots, contents of 235 

Filament 97 

Flat-headed borer 138 

Flowers, parts of 96 

imperfect and perfect. loi, 131, 132 

shrubbery and 210 

Fly, green 58 

Fodder tables 215 

Food required by plants 37 

Foods, nutrients in 226 

Formaldehyde 60 

Fungi 57. 59 

Galloway cattle 158 

Garden, the 130 

Germination 29, 64 

affected by age 71 

causes affecting 72 

Gluten 170 

Gobo 1 1 o 

Gooseberry, culture of 135, 136 

Grafting 84 

Grafting wax 87 

Grain, weights of 237 

Grape, culture of 141, 142 

propagated by cuttings 83 

Green cuttings 84 

Green fly 58 

Grub 144 

Guernsey cattle 155 

Hairy woodpecker 139 

Hambletonian horses 179 

Hampshire sheep 183, 186, 187 

Hector weed 1 1 9— 1 22 

Hereford cattle 157 

Holstein Friesian cattle 155 

Home yards 207 

Honey bees 201, 202 

Honeycomb 205 

Hop plant, flowers of 103 

Horned Dorset sheep 187 

Horse, age of 238 

diagram of 240 

Horses 177—182 



PAGE. 

Houdan chickens 193, 194 

Humus 42, 43 

from manure 54 

Husbandry, animal 152, 158 

Ichneumon fly 143 

Imago 14s 

Imperfect flowers i 01, 131, 132 

Indian corn 50. 51, 52, 102 

Indian ponies 181 

Insects, pollination by 98 

animals that destroy 143—151 

defined 143 

Jersey cattle 154 

Kellock 118 

Kerlock 118 

Lactic acid 162 

Lactose 161 

Lactuca 1 27, 128 

Lady-bird beetles 144 

Lady bug 145 

Lappa no 

Larva 144 

of bee 203 

Layering 82 

Leaves 30 

do not take in water 22 

evaporation through 22 

Leghorn chickens 193 

Leicester sheep 183, 187, 188 

Lettuce, prickly 127, 128 

wild 127, 128 

Leucanthemum iii, 112 

Lice, plant 58 

Linaria 113 

Lincoln sheep 188 

Loam 34 

Louse, plant 58 

Mambrino horses 179 

Manure 39, 40, 50 

best fertilizer 43 

Maple tree, flowers of 103 

Matter 13 

Meat breeds of chickens 194 

Melon, flower of 103 

Meridian, principal 233 



246 



INDEX 



Merino sheep 183, 184 

Milk 51 

composition of 160 

how to get good 1 64 

thistle 1:^7. 128 

Mineral matter in plants 25 

Minorca chickens 193. i94 

Morgan horses 1 79 

Morning glory 97 

Moth, codling 139 

Mows, contents of 238 

Mulching 56 

Mustangs 181 

Mustard, wild 118 

Narrow leaved dock 116, 117 

Native cattle 158 

Neat cattle 152,153 

Nitrates 45. 46, 47 

Nitrogen 39, 43, 45, 49. 50. 5'. 52 

in fodder 223 

Nutrients in foods 226 

table of 221 

Nutritive ratio 171 

Oats 50. 51. 52 

Oat smut 59,60 

Orange, propagated by cuttings... 83 

Orchard, the 137-142 

Ovary 98 

Ovule 98 

fertilization of 99 

Ox-eye daisy iii, 112 

Oxford sheep 183, 186, 187 

Parasites 57 

fungus 59 

of poultry 197 

Paris green 58 

Parsnip, wild 119 

Pastinaca 119 

Pasteurization 167 

Paths 212 

Peach, culture of 141 

Pekin ducks 198 

Percheron horses 179 

Perennials 107 

Perfect flowers loi, 131, 132 

Pests, insect 137 



PAGE. 
Petals 97 

Phosphate of lime 162 

Phosphoric acid .. .39, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52 

in fodder 223 

Pistil, parts of 98 

Pistillate flowers loi 

Plant breeding 104 

Plant food, in soil 35 

in soil water 38 

prepared slowly 49 

Plant lice 58 

Plantago 128, 129 

Plantain, buckhorn 128, 129 

English 128, 129 

long leaved 128, 129 

Planting, rule for depth of yy 

Plants, and water 21 

dry the soil 23 

evaporation from 21 

growth of 29 

how to improve 92 

in water 38 

mineral matter in 25 

require food 37 

Plowing crops under 43 

Plowing table 237 

Plum, culture of 140 

Plymouth Rock chickens 194 

Poland-China hogs 189, 190 

Polled Durham cattle 157 

Pollen 97 

Pollination 98 

Ponies 181 

Potash 39, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52 

in fodder 223 

Potato beetle 57 

Potato plant 31 

reared from cuttings 83 

Poultry 193-197 

Poults 200 

Prickly lettuce 127, 128 

Problem in landscape gardening. . 208 

Produce 15 

Profits in bee-keeping 206 

in poultry 193 

Protein 162, 169, 170 

in fodder 215 

Protoplasm 13. iS 

Pumpkin, flower of 103 

Pupa 145 



INDEX 



247 



PAGE. 

Quack grass 123. '-4 

Queen bees 201,202 

Quick grass 123, 124 

Quicklime 59 

Quitch grass 123, 124 

Rambouillet sheep 183, 185 

Range 234 

Ransted 113 

Raspberry, culture of 134. '35 

Ripple grass 128, 129 

Rouen ducks i99 

Ratio, nutritive 171 

Ration, balanced 172 

Red polled cattle 158 

Rib grass 128, 129 

Ricks, contents of 238 

Rollers 68 

Root hairs 29 

Roots need air 66 

Rotation of crops 49, So 

plan of 52 

Rumex 116, 117 

Russian thistle 11 9—122 

Salsola 1 19-122 

Saltwort 1 19-122 

School yards 207,213 

Swine 189-192 

Scrub cattle 158 

Sections 233 

Seed, diagram of 80 

tables 236 

testing 71 

Seeds 32 

air in 65 

effect of water on 62 

need air 64 

vitality of T2 

weights of 237 

Selection, improvement by 93 

Separator, cream 1 68 

Sepal 96 

Sheep 183-188 

diagram of 240 

Shetland ponies 181 

Shorthorn cattle 157 

Shropshire sheep 183, 185 

Shrubbery and flowers 210 



PAGE. 

Silage 230 

Silk of Indian corn 102 

Silo 231 

Silos, contents of 232 

Simmenthal cattle 158 

Sinapis n8 

Smut, oat 59 

Snap dragon 112, 113 

Soil 17 

air and water in 34 

fertility of 37 

humus in 40 

ideal zz 

make-up of rich 39 

nitrogen in 39 

phosphoric acid in 39 

moisture in 54 

plant food in 35 

plants dry tne 23 

potash in 39 

Soil water 17 

holds plant food 38 

seeds and 62 

Solutions 24 

Sonchus 115, 116 

Sour dock 1 16, 117 

Southdown sheep 183, 184 

Sow thistle 115, 116 

Sparrow, English 150 

Spider, garden 144 

Squash, flower of 103 

Stamens 97 

Staminate flowers loi 

Starch 26,27 

Stem 30 

Stigma 98 

Stock, grafting 85 

Strawberry, culture of 131, 134 

effect on soil 51 

Strawberry blossoms 101,131 

Style 98 

Sugar of milk 161 

Swarming 204 

Tarn worth hogs 191 

Tartar weed i ig— 122 

Terminal bud 32 

Test, Babcock 163 

tuberculin 165 

Tester, seed 71. 72 



248 



INDEX 



PAGE. 

Thistle, Canada 109, no 

English 127, 128 

Russian 1 19—122 

milk 127,128 

sow lis, I iS 

Thoroughbred horse 178 

Tiling 35 

Toad 146, 147 

Toadflax 112, 113 

Tobacco SO, 52 

Tommy grass 123, 124 

Townships 233 

Tragus 119, 122 

Transpiration 22 

Transplanting 88 

Trees 211 

Triticum 123, 124 

Trotting horses 178 

Tubercles 45, 46 

Tuberculin test 16s 

Tuberculosis 164 

Turkeys, ducks and 198—200 

Types of plantlets 76 

Vines 211 

Vineyard 141 

Vitality of seeds 72 

Vitriol, blue 59 



PAGE. 

Water, in soil 33-34 

leaves do not take in 22 

not at rest 19 

plants and 21 

soil 17 

Wax, grafting 87 

Weeds, annual 106 

biennial 106 

crops and 103 

perennial 107 

Wheat 50.51.52 

smut 60 

Wheat grass 123, 1 24 

Whip-graft 85, 86 

Wood ashes 40 

Woodpecker, hairy 139 

Worker bees 201,202 

White daisy in, 112 

White weed in, 112 

Wyandotte chickens 195 

Xanthium 113, 114 

Yards 207-214 

Yellow dock 116, 117 

Yellows 141 

Yorkshire hogs 190 



Botany all the Year Round 

A PRACTICAL TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS 

By E. F. ANDREWS 

HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, GA. 

Cloth^ I2m0yj02 pp.^with illustrations. Price^ $i.oo 



IT is the aim of this book to show that botany can be taught 
to good advantage by means within the reach of every one. 

Although adapted for use in any secondary school, it is 
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The language of the text is very simple and direct. Botani- 
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conclusions. He is first taught to observe the conditions of 
plant life, then the essential organs of the plant are taken up, 
and finally the author treats of plants as they relate to their 
surroundings — ecology. 

The subject is treated in a manner both practical and 
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each lesson it takes up each topic at just the time of the year 
when material for it is most abundant. In this way the study 
can be carried on all the year round. The leaf has been 
selected as the starting point, and prominence is given to the 
more familiar forms of vegetation presented by the seed-bear- 
ing plants, in this way proceeding from the familiar and well- 
known to the more primitive and obscure forms. The experi- 
ments described are simple, requiring only such appliances as 
the teacher and pupil can easily devise. Practical questions 
are given at the end of each section with a view to bringing out 
the relations more clearly and to teaching the pupil to reason 
for himself. 

ame:r.ican book company 

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(1 75) 



Burnet's Zoology 

FOR 
HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 

BY 

MARGARETTA BURNET 

Teacher of Zoology, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O. 

Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages. Illustrated, Price, 75 cents 



This new text-book on Zoology is intended for classes 
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The design of the book is to give a good general knowl- 
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compare for himself and then to arrange and classify his 
knowledge. Only typical or principal forms are described, 
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as are necessary, and these are carefully defined. 

Each subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being 
selected and arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the 
structure of each form. ■ 



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[144] 



BARNES'S NEW HISTORIES 
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Told in Biographies by James BAi.inviN. Cloth, i2nio, 

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Thoroughly revised and brought down to date. Half 
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offer present-day views of history and methods of teaching. 
The larger book has been revised in every particular, and the 
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The Elementary History tells the story of the country 
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RODDY'S GEOGRAPHIES 

Roddy's Elementary Geography - • Price 50 Cents 
Roddy's Complete Geography ... - Price $1.00 

By H. JUSTIN RODDY, M.S. 

Department of Geography, First Pennsylvania State Normal School 



THIS SERIES has been prepared to meet a distinct demand for 
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They are distinctive in the following important particulars: 

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The Ideal Language Series 

Steps In English 

By A. C. McLean, A. M., Principal of Luckey Schools, 
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This series is free from the many faults found in other 
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Overton's Applied Physiology 



By frank OVERTON, A.M., M.D. 
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OVERTON'S APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY— Primary ... 30 cents 
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The fundamental principle of the series is that the 
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Favorite Songs and Hymns 

FOR SCHOOL AND HOME 

By J. P. McCASKEY 
Editor of the Franklin Square Song Collection. 

Cloth, Royal Octavo, 400 pages .... Price, 80 cents 



A collection of the best known and best loved "Songs 
of the World," including National Songs, Arbor Day 
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jOl 39 1904 



